THE RELATIONSHIP OF HYPNOSIS AND POSTHYPNOTIC AMNESIA TO RETROACTIVE INHIBITION. 4 GROUPS OF 10 STUDENTS EACH LEARNED LISTS OF ADJECTIVES IN A RETROACTIVE INHIBITION PARADIGM. 2 GROUPS LEARNED THE INTERVENING LIST WHILE THEY WERE HYPNOTIZED. SS OF 1 OF THESE WERE GIVEN INSTRUCTIONS FOR POSTHYPNOTIC AMNESIA, WHILE SS OF THE OTHER WERE TOLD TO RECALL WHAT THEY HAD LEARNED UNDER HYPNOSIS. THE SAVINGS AND RECALL SCORES OF BOTH GROUPS FOR ITEMS OF THE ORIGINAL LIST WERE NOT DIFFERENT FROM A 3RD GROUP WHICH HAD LEARNED ALL 3 LISTS IN THE WAKING STATE. ALL GROUPS SHOWED SUBSTANTIAL RETROACTIVE INHIBITION WHEN COMPARED TO CONTROLS WHO HAD LEARNED NO INTERVENING LIST. (SPANISH + GERMAN ABSTRACTS) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1967
Bowers, Kenneth S. (1967). The effect for demands of honesty upon reports of visual and auditory hallucinations. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15, 31-36.
SS, UNSELECTED FOR HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND SIMPLY TOLD TO HALLUCINATE, MADE PRETEST RATINGS ON THE REALITY OF VISUAL AND AUDITORY HALLUCINATIONS. ALL SS WERE THEN TASK MOTIVATED TO HALLUCINATE. BEFORE THE RETEST RATINGS WERE MADE, 1/2 OF THE SS WERE CONFRONTED BY A 2ND E WITH DEMANDS FOR REPORT HONESTY. FOR BOTH SENSORY MODALITIES, THE MEAN CHANGE IN RATINGS FROM PRETEST TO RETEST WAS SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER FOR THE TASK-MOTIVATED THAN FOR THE HONESTY-REPORT CONDITION. RATINGS OF THE REALITY OF HALLUCINATIONS ARE EVIDENTLY HIGHLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE CONTEXT OF DEMANDS IN WHICH THE REPORT IS MADE. IT IS ARGUED THAT, IN THIS AND PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS UTILIZING UNSELECTED SS, REPORTS OF HALLUCINATORY ACTIVITY ARE LESS APT TO REFLECT PERCEPTUAL ALTERATIONS THAN RESPONSE MODIFICATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH REGNANT EXPERIMENTAL DEMANDS. (GERMAN + SPANISH SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Evans, Frederick J. (1967). An experimental indirect technique for the induction of hypnosis without awareness. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15, 72-85.
A procedure is described which has been used in an experimental setting as a method of indirectly inducing hypnosis without S’s awareness. Ss are not told that hypnosis is involved in the procedure, but are told they will be taught how to relax. The aim of the indirect procedure is to create different expectations and preconceptions from those normally occurring in the special hypnotic relationship. Evidence from 3 studies (samples of 63, 63, 120) indicates that the procedure successfully induces hypnosis comparable in depth to other standard hypnotic procedures. About half of the Ss tested apparently do not recognize the procedure involves hypnosis. Approximately 30% of the Ss who receive the procedure, as well as 30% of the Ss in the control group who did not receive the procedure, but were tested with the same test suggestions, recognized that an attempt had been made to induce hypnosis. The perceptions about whether hypnosis was involved were unrelated to scores on typical hypnotic phenomena. It was concluded that the indirect induction technique successfully induces hypnosis and is a useful technique for manipulating S-expectations in an experimental context.
NOTES
“[The Subject] is told, ‘A series of experiments are being conducted investigating the effects of relaxation on behavior. Because of confusing results in the literature, this study is designed to examine the relationship between relaxation and several other psychological phenomena, some of which might remind you of a variety of other phenomena which you may have heard or read about.’ The S was told that a technique had been devised that would assist him to relax completely. His main task was to relax as completely as possible. This would be facilitated by lying comfortably on a couch, and by allowing his mind to become completely blank. To prevent himself from falling asleep, he should concentrate his attention on some object or idea. To help exclude other thoughts from his mind, E would continue to talk in a monotonous voice saying little of importance, while the S stared at a spot on the wall. This shaping of the situation was continued with a considerable degree of apparent permissiveness.
“The S’s attention was slowly directed to the rhythm of his own breathing as suggestions were given of eye fatigue. If S closed his eyes, he might find it convenient to concentrate on the rhythm of his own breathing. Perhaps this would be easy to think about if he visualized a pendulum swinging in time with his breathing. The E continued to talk and count in rhythm with S’s breathing. Special words, such as ‘breathing in and out; the pendulum swings back and forward,’ were always spoken as S inhaled or exhaled. Counting was also timed to coincide with exhalation. Deeper relaxation was suggested as E counted slowly from 1 to 21, and later, from 1 to 31.
“Throughout the procedure, phrases and words (such as ‘hypnosis,’ ‘trance,’ ‘drowsy’) traditionally employed with hypnotic induction techniques were avoided. After approximately 30 minutes, a natural transition was made to the testing procedure. Suggestions of continued deep relaxation were intermingled between various tests administered. Termination was effected by suggesting that the relaxation would end as E counted from ‘A’ to ‘H'” (p. 75).
1966
Evans, Frederick J.; Schmeidler, D. (1966). Relationship between the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form C. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 14, 333-343.
3 SUBGROUPS OF 20 SS WITH HIGH, MEDIUM, OR LOW SCORES ON A SLIGHTLY MODIFIED, TAPE-RECORDED VERSION OF THE HARVARD GROUP SCALE OF HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY, FORM A (HGSHS:A) WERE LATER ADMINISTERED THE STANFORD HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY SCALE, FORM C (SHSS:C). THE 2 SCALES CORRELATED .59, WHICH IS LOWER THAN WOULD BE PREDICTED BY SCALE RELIABILITIES. THIS, TOGETHER WITH OTHER DATA BASED ON ITEM CHARACTERISTICS, INDICATES THAT THE 2 SCALES ARE NOT EQUIVALENT, BUT IN PART MEASURE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF HYPNOTIC PERFORMANCE. SCORES ON HGSHS:A FOR LOW SS ARE PREDICTIVE OF SHSS:C SCORES, BUT THE STABILITY OF PERFORMANCE BETWEEN HGSHS:A AND SHSS:C IS NOT AS MARKED FOR MEDIUM AND HIGH SS ON HGSHS:A. THIS IS PARTLY A RESULT OF THE FAILURE OF PASSIVE MOTOR (PRIMARY) SUGGESTIBILITY TO DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN LEVELS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY, ALTHOUGH CHALLENGE ITEMS DO. THE 2 CLUSTERS OF ITEMS CORRELATE .23 AND .43 IN HGSHS:A AND SHSS:C, RESPECTIVELY. THE PASSIVE SUGGESTIBILITY ITEMS DETRACT FROM THE VALIDITY OF THE 2 SCALES. (SPANISH + FRENCH SUMMARIES) (20 REF.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Evans, Frederick J.; Thorn, Wendy A. (1966). Two types of posthypnotic amnesia: Recall amnesia and source amnesia. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 14 (2), 162-179.
Posthypnotic recall amnesia refers to S”s inability to recall, when challenged posthypnotically, the events which occurred during hypnosis. Posthypnotic source amnesia, occurs when S subsequently remembers the experiences of hypnosis, but has no recollection of acquiring the experiences. Data from 3 samples are presented to support the distinction between the 2 types of amnesia. Of 243 Ss, 18 experienced recall amnesia, 26 displayed source amnesia, but only 4 developed both kinds. There were no differences in rated depth of hypnosis of these 3 subgroups. Recall amnesia and source amnesia correlated .37, .38, and .39, respectively (p < .001) in the 3 samples. The evidence indicates the 2 types of amnesia are different phenomena. Similarities between source amnesia and certain (dissociative) normal and psychopathological memory processes are discussed. (Spanish & German summaries) (32 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) 1965 Coe, William C. (1965). A method of self-teaching for experimental hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13 (3), 144-149. A student''s interest in hypnotic research may actually be discouraged because of the difficulty in obtaining a formal course or close supervision in hypnotic techniques. A method tried by 2 students to overcome this problem is presented. The "self-teaching" procedure attempts to fulfill 3 basic criteria: safeguarding the S, requiring minimal supervisory time, and learning to administer a standard hypnotic scale. Some benefits seem to have been realized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Cooper, Leslie M.; Pedersen, Darhl M. (1965). A note on the failure to find personality differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers for hypnotic research. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13 (4), 274-278. Personality measures were administered to 136 students in an introductory psychology class at Brigham Young University. 30 Ss subsequently volunteered to have their hypnotic susceptibility assessed. There were no significant differences found between the means of the resulting 23 variables for the 30 volunteers and 106 nonvolunteers. 2 variables (age and ego strength) showed significantly different variances for the 2 groups, but these may be attributed to chance because of the number of significance tests made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Field, Peter B.; Evans, Frederick J.; Orne, Martin T. (1965). Order of difficulty of suggestions during hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13, 183-192. This study tests the hypothesis that successful response to suggestion during hypnosis predisposes to further successful response, but failure leads to subsequent failure. The Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility was administered to 2 groups of 51 volunteer students. For 1 group, 8 of the 12 items were administered in the order easy-to-difficult; for the 2nd group, in the order difficult-to-easy. Total and 8-item mean scores, and frequency distributions, did not differ significantly between groups. Except for the item measuring posthypnotic amnesia, item difficulties for the 2 groups did not differ significantly. Although the difficult-to-easy group was more amnesic, the 2 groups recalled a similar number of additional items when amnesia was "lifted." The block of 4 easier items was relatively easier when preceded by a block of 4 harder items and, similarly, the harder items were relatively less difficult if preceded by a block of easier items. The magnitude of this effect was small, and the order effect hypothesis was basically not supported. Future research should consider the S''s subjective impression of success and failure. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) 1964 Anderson, Milton L.; Sarbin, T. R. (1964). Base rate expectations and motoric alterations in hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12 (3), 147-158. Degree of responsiveness to "suggestion" in an experiment which did not utilize hypnotic induction (the Berkeley Sample) was comparable to that obtained in an experiment which did utilize hypnotic induction (the Stanford Sample). Procedural differences between the 2 experiments--self-scoring vs. objective-scoring, and group vs. individual testing--were regarded as not crucial in making a comparison of the 2 experiments. The distribution of responses in the Berkeley Sample may be taken as the base rate. The slightly higher degree of responsiveness over the base rate in the Stanford Sample (on some tests) may be attributed to the "degree of volunteering" that characterized the sample. The importance for experiments in the future to create equal levels of motivation and expectation to perform well under both the hypnotic and the nonhypnotic conditions is stressed, and brief mention is made of a new metaphor to be used in the conceptualization of the problems of hypnosis. (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Evans, Frederick J.; Schmeidler, D. (1964). Reliability of two observers scoring the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12 (4), 239-251. 2 Os scored the responses of 60 Ss on a 12-item objective test, Stanford Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form C (Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962). Mean total scores reported by the 2 Es did not differ significantly. The correlation between the total scores of the 2 Es was .947. Nevertheless, differences in total scores assigned occurred with 40% of Ss, which is a significant departure from perfect agreement. The 2 Es disagreed about correct scoring of 54 items (7.5% of all items scored). The extent of disagreement was significantly greater than 0. Disagreement was not related to the level of susceptibility of Ss, nor to the relative experience of Es with hypnosis. More than 1/2 of the disagreements involved systematic differences in the interpretation and application of the scoring criteria for 2 items; item 6: Dream, and item 9: Anosmia to Ammonia. These systematic differences affecting scoring reliability happened to counterbalance to produce similar total scores in this study. Several sources of potential scoring unreliability of SHSS:C are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Field, Peter B. (1964). Bales interaction analysis of hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12, 88-98. Sound films of 2 hypnotists, 4 Ss, and 2 simulators of hypnosis were scored by a modification of Bales'' interaction process analysis. Comparisons are presented between the interaction profiles of hypnotists and Ss. Both of the hypnotists'' transformed interaction percentages fell above the Ss'' 95% confidence intervals for agreeing, asking questions, and giving suggestions, and below the Ss'' confidence intervals for appearing submissive, giving opinions, showing tension, and giving information. No consistent differences were found between hypnotists and Ss for seeming positive, negative, or dominant, for disagreeing, or for releasing tension. The 2 simulators did not show consistent interaction differences from the real Ss. Both advantages and limitations in applying Bales'' method to hypnosis are discussed. It is concluded that interaction process analysis provides a measure of the overt role-differentiation between S and hypnotist, but does not directly reflect some of the unique features of the hypnotic situation (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Furneaux, W. D. (1964). The heat-illusion test and the structure of suggestibility. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12 (3), 169-180. 2 similar forms of the heat-illusion test are shown to correlate to a smaller degree than would be expected if they measure the same attribute. The 2 versions also differ in the way in which they correlate with other suggestibility tests. It is shown that linear regression techniques are not appropriate for analyzing the data concerned. The interaction of various nonlinear relationships with a difference in "difficulty," as between the 2 forms of the illusion, seems to provide an adequate explanation for the results. It is suggested that these nonlinear relationships may indicate the existence of an attribute which prevents some Ss from responding to any suggestibility test, irrespective of what the specific mechanisms of response may be. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) 1963 Austin, M. J.; Perry, Campbell.; Sutcliffe, J. P.; Yeomans, N. (1963). Can somnambulists successfully simulate hypnotic behavior without becoming entranced?. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11 (3), 175-186. It is proposed that in order to avoid confounding subject and treatment differences in experimental studies of hypnosis a "simulating control" group composed of susceptible Ss be used. This study relates to the issue of whether such Ss can successfully simulate hypnosis, without being entranced. Results indicate an affirmative answer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Deckert, G. H.; West, L. J. (1963). The problem of hypnotizability: A review. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11, 205-235. This paper summarizes the relatively unsuccessful effort to relate hypnotizability to sex, age, psychiatric diagnoses, suggestibility, and various personality traits. The problems of measurement, subject selection, controls, and experimenter bias are reviewed. Comparison of data is difficult and replication of studies infrequent. This might be attributed to incomplete reporting of methodology, defects in experimental design, and various conceptual problems. Concepts which view hypnotizability as "something" universal, "something" unique, or "nothing" are briefly appraised. Finally, hypnotizability is seen as a "term" describing a relationship between a "route" and a "state"--each identifiable by measurable criteria. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) 1961 Barber, Theodore Xenophon (1961). Experimental evidence for a theory of hypnotic behaviour: II. Experimental controls in hypnotic age-regression. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 9, 181-193. 5 studies are often cited in support of the contention that involuntary infantile or childhood behavior patterns are revived under hypnotic age-regression. These studies are presented and re-evaluated in terms of other experimental evidence. The author concludes that the "good" hypnotic subject may vividly imagine that he is a child and may perform childlike behavior; "however, it has not been demonstrated that during ''hypnotic age-regression'' earlier patterns of behavior are revived that could not be performed voluntarily by an appropriately motivated but unhypnotized adult. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4II81B. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Black, Stephen; Wigan, E. R. (1961). An investigation of selective deafness produced by direct suggestion under hypnosis. British Medical Journal, 2 (5254), 736-741. NOTES Conditioned cardiac response extinguished by hypnotic deafness. 1959 Crasilneck, Harold B.; Hall, James A. (1959). Physiological changes associated with hypnosis: A review of the literature since 1948. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 7 (1), 9-50. ( Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts, 61: 6626) NOTES 1: Topic headings include: Experimental Techniques (Depth, Type of suggestion, Other variables) Cardiovascular Effects (Clinical reports, Blister formation, Bleeding, Peripheral vasomotion, Heart rate, EKG changes, Blood pressure, Hematological changes) Respiration Urogenital System Gastrointestinal System Metabolism and Temperature Endocrine System Central Nervous System (Electroencephalography, Epilepsy, Age regression, Galvanic skin response, Muscle control, Electromotive changes, Multiple sclerosis, Cold adaptation, Exocrine glands, Reflexes, Russian reports) Special Senses (Hearing, Taste) 1954 Dittborn, Julio (1954). Dehypnotization and associated words. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2 (2), 136-138. Author tested Freud's hypotheses about signs of emotional conflict gleaned from a word association test. A highly hypnotizable subject who had been accused of theft was tested with the word association test repeatedly. He had been given the suggestion, while in deep hypnosis, that any word provoking emotional conflict would automatically bring him out of hypnosis. That is, "dehypnotization was used as a new method to investigate the conflict-provoking quality of certain stimulus-words in an association word test" (p. 139). Freud's predictions were only partially supported. Erickson, Milton H. (1954). The development of an acute limited obsessional hysterical state in a normal hypnotic subject. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2, 27-41. NOTES 1: The 25 year old female graduate student in psychology had often been used in hypnosis experiments and as a demonstration subject, and had witnessed induction of hypnotic deafness, blindness, and color-blindness though she had not been given those suggestions herself. Scientific curiosity appeared to be the motivation for volunteering to experience hypnotic blindness, but she was skeptical about her ability to experience it. The author gave a series of "exceedingly tedious" suggestions to develop somnambulism (passively responsive and receptive) followed by suggestions leading gradually to development of "blindness" with the intention of concealing it from the hypnotist, with attendant strong and mixed emotions. The initial attempts failed because the subject ostensibly was deceiving herself into thinking she had developed hypnotic blindness, but the author also was of the opinion that she was seeking to meet unconscious personality needs. The author then covertly changed the goal of the experiment "to develop in the subject an acute hysterical obsessional compulsive mental state which would be accompanied by hypnotic blindness and which would parallel or resemble the obsessive compulsive hysterical mental disturbances encountered in psychiatric practice" (p. 32). The author developed a monologue of suggestions based in part on the utterances of hospitalized obsessive patients and in part on trauma relating to traumatic blindness in a kitten and a friend of the subject. In a slow but directed manner the author built up a double-bind situation which eventually led to the experience of hypnotic blindness as well as heightened emotional reactivity, crying etc. 1953 Beigel, Hugo B. (1953). Hypnosis as an instrument in psychological experimentation. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 1, 13-17. (Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts, 53: 6385) Author's Summary In this paper various areas of psychological research were pointed out in which expermentation with hypnotized subjects has been or could be employed to advantage. It is held that there are several problems which offer no point of attack unless hypnosis is used and several others which, in view of their complexity, cannot be effectually approached by the classic method of experimentation. Specifically mentioned were the areas of thinking, learning, perception, apperception, imagination, and emotion, in which the hypnotic experiment proves valuable when either amnesia for preceding experiences, isolation from concomitant influences, or the introduction of an as-if situation is necessary. While it is undeniable that some of the experiments cited need improvement if their results are to be considered reliable -- a remediable shortcoming they share with most first experiments -- it is also evident that the use of hypnosis in experiments offers an approach to some areas that have thus far been inaccessible. Needless to say, hypnosis should not be used when similar results can be as readily obtained by the customary experimental method, but as Gidro-Frank and Bull (10) state, our scant knowledge of the nature of the hypnotic state should not bar it from use as a scientific tool. Still the only one available technique to solve a problem. It must be added, however, that the experimenter must be thoroughly familiar with the technique but also to their physical and mental health. Glasner, Samuel (1953). Research problems in the educational and social psychological applications of hypnosis. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 1 (2), 42-48. NOTES 1: The author reviews literature in which hypnosis is used as an experimental research method in two general areas: hypnosis in learning and recall, and hypnosis in social psychology. "In summary, the application of hypnosis to research in the fields of educational and social psychology is practically virgin territory. Imaginative investigators should be able to develop numerous interesting experiments in these two great areas" (p. 47). Israeli, Nathan (1953). Experimental study of projection in time: I. Outlook upon the remote future--extending through the quintillionth year. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 1 (2), 49-60. Author's Summary - This report on research now under progress is concerned with time projection and with hypnotic imagination and dreams of projection into varying remote future periods extending to the very distant quintillionth year. The work proceeded in stages including (a) orientation to the general procedure, (b) hypnotic future autobiographic material (age progression), (c) going successively from one future period to another from the end of the 21st century through the quintillionth year -- devoting usually one experimental session to any future period. This paper reports on the self-ratings for hypnosis depth reached by the subjects, their description of life, things, and events, in connection with each projection into a future period, and their visual or nonvisual imagery. 1. Self-ratings for hypnosis depth show with one insignificant exceptional instance that all subjects were always at least at the trance-level or in a deeper hypnotic stage. Individual differences in level reached were indicated with a general trend towards more profound trance in later sessions. The deeper levels on the scale used were not described by the experimenter. Each subject gave those levels his own interpretation in setting up his own scale. 2. The time projections are to be explained in terms of changing space-time framework, social topographic reorientation, recentering, and non-conventional time centering. 3. Hypnotic suggestion to imagine and dream about being suddenly transported and projected into a specified future period is followed by rapid recentering as the subjects follow out the suggestions. 4. Although no specific instructions or sets of suggestions were included about the nature of their anticipations, the description of life, things, and events of any future period was on a predominant impersonal level, with the personal aspects in the background. Nonetheless, the suggestion of transportation and projection into a future period leads to various changes in one's present-situation perceptions, imagery, space-time framework, and system of concepts and beliefs. With a change in time reference, the description of life, things, and events is adjusted to the era or epoch specified. This involves description of technological, biological, psychological, and anthropological changes. The extinction of mankind is anticipated in the very remote future by some subjects. The earth and the moon are expected to disappear by collision or otherwise. 5. Individual analysis shows that the descriptions of the different future periods approximately fit into patterns and are not discontinuous. An individual subject's descriptions beginning with the first future period and taking in all the other periods show constructive or catastrophic trends or cyclical variation between both extremes. Descriptions of life, things, and events of each future period in the main change in a constructive or in a catastrophic direction. They are continuous but with certain discontinuities and incoherence. 6. A geocentric orientation and a heliocentric preoccupation are invariant and predominant. The subjects are unable to abandon their basic planetary orientation or schemata. 7. Colored imagery includes mainly the primary colors. They comprise both expanse colors and surface colors. Auditory imagery is quite frequent. There are also references to olfactory, tactile, and kinesthetic imagery. Thermic imagery becomes increasingly prominent in the more remote future periods when the sun's heat is described as more intense. Imagery changes with the outlook patterns and appears to have personal, structural, and social determinants. One subject's imagery was macropic. S RESEEARCH SCHOOL 2002 Bartolo-Abela, Marcelle; Benton, Theodore (2002, August). Hypnotherapy for AD/HD: Preliminary evidence for its effectiveness. [Paper] Presented at the 110th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, Illinois. Although AD/HD is typically treated with stimulants, non-pharmacological alternatives are regularly pursued because of adverse side effects of the stimulants. In a preliminary trial, 12 boys in special education programs who fulfilled DSM-IV criteria for AD/HD were treated with a standardized protocol of brief Ericksonian hypnotherapy, with self-hypnosis and audiotape homework, over 4 weeks. Posttherapy assessments using the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS) showed decreased overall maladaptive behavior of 33.30% ( p < .001), with specific reductions of 36.10% (hyperactivity; p < .001) and 42.09% (daydreaming/inattention; p < .001) over baseline scores. School records also showed improved grades. There was no difference in outcome based on age or comorbidity. These findings provide initial evidence for the effectiveness of hypnotherapy for AD/HD in boys. 1996 Sapp, Marty (1996). Three treatments for reducing the worry and emotionality components of test anxiety with undergraduate and graduate college students:Cognitive-behavioral hypnosis, relaxation therapy, and support counseling. Journal of College Student Development, 37 (1), 79-87. The effects of cognitive-behavioral hypnosis, relaxation therapy, and supportive counseling in reducing the worry and emotionality components of test anxiety among undergraduate and graduate students were examined. Relaxation therapy was more effective with graduate students undergraduate responded more to supportive counseling. Similarly, cognitive-behavioral hypnosis and relaxation therapy were both more effective in reducing the worry and emotionality components of test anxiety and in improving grade point averages than was supportive counseling. Wark, David (1996). Teaching college students better learning skills using self-hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 38 (4), 277-287. Reports the effects of self-hypnosis used by 51 college students enrolled in a 10-wk course on efficient learning skills. All Ss were administered the Creative Imagination Scale (CIS). Subsequently, they learned to enter and deepen alert self-hypnosis. They gave themselves personal suggestions and then studied in hypnosis. They reported their depth of hypnosis and satisfaction with each session. Grades were collected the quarter before, during and after the course. Satisfaction and depth data indicated the Ss were involved throughout the course. Statistical testing showed that Ss who scored highest on the CIS had the lowest initial GPA, improved most during the course, and significantly increased their GPA in the quarter after. 1994 Brown, Gail W.; Riddell, Rodney; Summers, David; Coffman, Brent (1994, August). Use of hypnosis by practitioners in the school setting. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles. NOTES Hypnosis is a therapeutic procedure that is appropriate for some school-age clients. Through the use of hypnosis that utilizes metaphors and imagery, children can be empowered to find unique solutions to their problems. Children enjoy the feeling of power and mastery that they have when able to perform hypnotic phenomena. They like to play magic and can be told that a finger or other body part will become numb. Because a major goal of hypnotherapy is to teach a child to be an active participant in his or her own behalf, the focus is on creating solutions and mastering the situation rather than enduring the problems. Four case studies demonstrate the utility of hypnosis in the treatment of phantom pain and nausea, sleep terror disorder, school phobia, and spider phobia. In each case, treatment goals were realized. Because the solutions were self- generated, the behavioral changes maintained over time and situation. Case #1: Hypnosis was used to help alleviate phantom limb pain and nausea during chemotherapy following amputation of the right leg at the knee due to cancer in a thirteen- year-old male. The client had indicated that he loved nature and enjoyed the mountains. The metaphor described a young tree that has just begun to grow small silvery leaves. The spring floods tear the limbs and branches from the stump. The deep roots and stump of the tree are all that remain. The tree is not the same as before the flood. Its roots are stronger, its base more sturdy compared to the branches and limbs. The young tree has withstood the catastrophe of the torrent of waters and is even stronger than before. To counter the nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy a switch mechanism metaphor was used. The client was adroit with computers and had no difficulty picturing a switch located in his brain which could "turn off" the nausea from chemotherapy. A room contained all the unpleasant feelings that were being experienced. In this room is a light of a particular color that represents all the unpleasant sensations. Press the key on the computer that controls the switch to turn off the colored light in that room. Suggestions for healing were also given. Your body has known for years how to heal. Visualize the battle between good and bad cells and the victory of the good cells. Case #2: Hypnosis was used to alleviate sleep terror disorder in a ten-year-old female. The onset of the subject's parasomnic symptomatology appeared to coincide with her starting kindergarten and her family's relocation shortly before. The initial treatment consisted of progressive relaxation, deep breathing, and the visual image of her "secret safe place." An induction utilizing a variety of images was presented. Hiking barefoot on a cool moss covered mountain trial, sitting in a an alpine meadow on a warm summer afternoon, and flying proved most effective in facilitating trance. The participant was told to "Visualize all your anxiety and tension as hard grey rocks. Pick up these rocks and place them in your pockets. Go to the front porch of your "secret safe place and on the porch is a "magic hefty bag." Place your hard grey rocks that contain all your anxiety and tension in the magic bag. Once in the bag, the rocks will no longer weight you down, you will be free of any feelings of stress or tension. Your bed is magic; it is covered with a special glue which will keep you in a reclining position until you are fully rested and ready to awaken." Case #3: Hypnosis was used in the treatment of school phobia in a nine-year-old male. The student experienced intense anxiety whenever separation from the primary caretaker occurred. The teacher stated that this boy experienced frequent absences and crying spells that were only relieved by phone calls to his mother or the presence of his mother next to him in class. In preparation for the intervention, the student was asked to draw a picture of how he felt inside during a panic attack. He drew a fire. He also said that only his mother could put that fire out. This information was utilized in creating a metaphor that described a house in a small town. "The mother had left, and a young boy was left alone. While at home, the boy looked out the window and saw several boys trying to burn a neighbor's yard! Acting quickly, he called the fire department, grabbed the fire extinguisher and unraveled the garden hose. He was able to extinguish the fire. The neighbors and friends were very happy and praised the boy's performance. When his mother heard the good news, she quickly returned home and held a celebration in his honor." Following the metaphor, hypnotherapy continued with suggestions about fire extinguishers that the subject could use to put out emotional fires. Case #4: Hypnosis was used in the treatment of spider phobia. Diagnosis of phobia was made in this eleven-year-old female when the fear or avoidance behavior was distressing. The child's strained facial expressions occurred even at the thought of seeing what she described as "a creepy, crawly creature with 8 legs." Preparatory to her first induction the participant was read the story of Charlotte's Web (White, 1980) to facilitate the imagery for future hypnotic work. In the following session systematic desensitization was accomplished using characters from the story of Charlotte's Web. During the third session the subject was age regressed to the first time she remembered seeing a spider. She recalled playing in the woods outside her family home on an island and seeing a large web stretched between two trees with a very large spider in the center of its web. She was then asked to remain at that place to look closely at that spider as it was most likely Charlotte or one of Charlotte's family. Upon closer investigation she saw not only Charlotte but "teeny-tiny babies." The event was reconstructed as a happy experience. The imagery provided by Charlotte's Web permitted the subject to fantasize her previous frightful experience and reframe spiders as cute little "teeny-tiny" babies with admirable human qualities. Krippner, Stanley (1994, August). Improvement of academic skills for children and adolescents with hypnosis. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles. NOTES Literature and research in this area are sparse, though there is clinical evidence that hypnosis is useful. My definition of hypnosis is a procedure facilitating a variety of structured goals or procedures in which a suggestion or motivation is enhanced by a mechanical device, another person, or oneself. There are 3 areas of application in academics: study habits test taking strengthening academic motivation The hypnotist should know the specifics of academic achievement, because specific suggestions (e.g. "Imagine you are at desk focusing well for 20 minutes,") are better. Emphasis on the positive is better than negative. Use the words "imagination," "concentration," or "imagining pictures," rather than "hypnosis." I try to determine what they expect, based in part on what words they use. In elementary school I focus on attitude and self esteem. I have them imagine reading a story, then how well they feel; that when they notice mistakes they won't be bothered because everyone makes mistakes. For high school, I help them develop good habits for time motivation (e.g. suggestions to "make an outline to follow while you study"). At college level, I introduce self hypnosis. I make frequent use of mental imagery, at all levels--especially imagery rehearsal, in which the person is engaged in a particular activity. In the NSF report on accelerated learning techniques (a project sponsored by the Army), Lozonov's "suggestopedia" techniques were studied. This review indicated it might enhance training effectiveness and reduce training time. I have observed the suggestopedia classes in Bulgaria and Hungary. Classes had a relaxed comfortable learning environment. Rather than individual learning, it was group learning. It included preliminary exercises, new material, and a review of what was learned. The first stage used 2/3 of the time. Then suggestions were given by the teacher to promote learning. The presentation phase took one third of the time. The method encourages students to make mental images of the material. In foreign language classes, people take on new roles. Stanton, Harry E. (1994). Self-hypnosis: One path to reduced test anxiety. Contemporary Hypnosis, 11, 14-18. Describes a self-hypnosis technique and its efficacy in reducing test anxiety. Forty high school students were matched on sex and anxiety scores and randomly allocated to an experimental group (receiving two 50-minute sessions, a week apart, to learn the self-hypnosis technique), and a control group (receiving two 50-minute sessions focused on ways of reducing test anxiety). Students were retested after the two sessions, and 6 months later. Results showed a significant reduction in anxiety scores only for the hypnosis group, which was maintained at 6-month follow-up. 1993 Capafons, A.; Amigo, S. (1993). Hipnosis y terapia de auto-regulacisn (Hypnosis and self-regulation therapy). In Labrador, F.J; Cruzado, J. A; Muqoz, M. (Ed.), Manual de ticnicas de modificacisn y terapia de conducta [Handbook of behavior modification and therapy] (pp. 457-476). Madrid, Spain: Piramide. Introductory chapter on hypnosis, self-hynosis and emotional self-regulation therapy. Full description of applied methods for inducing hypnosis and using emotional self-regulation therapy. 1989 Palan, B.M.; Chandwani, S. (1989). Coping with examination stress through hypnosis: An experimental study. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 31, 173-180. Fifty-six volunteer medical students participated in three groups balanced for number of subjects, performance at last examination, and hypnotizability. The hypnosis and waking groups attended eight group sessions once a week with general ego- strengthening and specific suggestions for study habits, with a ninth session of age progression and mental rehearsal. Subjects in these two groups practiced self-suggestions (in self-hypnosis or waking respectively) daily for the study period of 9 weeks. The control group experienced sessions of passive relaxation induced by light reading for the same period of time. The hypnosis group improved significantly in coping with examination stress, but there was no significant change in performance on examinations by any of the groups. Stanton, Harry E. (1989). Hypnosis and rational-emotive therapy--a de-stressing combination: A brief communication. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 37 (2), 95-99. It has been suggested that teacher stress might be reduced through cognitive restructuring which is aimed at improving the rationality of their thinking. To test this hypothesis, 40 high school teachers were paired on their level of reasonable thinking, operationalized in terms of scores on the Teacher Idea Inventory (Bernard, Joyce, & Rosewarne, 1983), and allocated at random to one of 2 groups. They also completed the Face Valid Stress Test. The experimental group participated in 4 weekly treatment sessions involving a hypnotic induction and suggestions derived from key elements of Rational-Emotive Therapy. These focused on the reduction of what Ellis (Ellis & Grieger, 1977), the originator of this treatment, calls "irrational thinking." The control group spent the same amount of time discussing stress reduction methods. Both the Face Valid Stress Test and the Teacher Idea Inventory were re-administered at the end of this period and again 12 months after conclusion of the experiment. Results indicated that both the experimental and control groups significantly reduced their levels of irrational thinking and stess, although the former's improvement was more marked, particularly at the 12-month follow-up. 1981 Baum, D.; Lynn, Steven J. (1981). Hypnotic susceptibility level and reading involvement. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 29 (4), 366-374. The study investigated differences between high and low hypnotizable Ss in their involvement in imaginative versus nonimaginative reading material. 10 high and 8 low susceptible Ss read passages of high and low rated imaginativeness. Ss' involvement in the passages was measured by self-report and reaction time. High and low hypnotizable Ss differed only in their involvement in imaginative material, with good Ss expressing greater involvement. High susceptible Ss tended to report more involvement in high than in low imaginative material, confirming J. R. Hilgard's (1965, 1970) observations. The reaction-time measure failed to parallel self-report, yielding non-significant results. 1976 Illovsky, J.; Fredman, N. (1976). Group suggestion in learning disabilities of primary grade children. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24, 87-97. This study reports the effects of tape-recorded hypnotic suggestions given to 48 hyperactive children between the ages of 6 and 8 from 3 public schools. The children had short attention spans, low frustration and tolerance [sic], and poor learning motivation. They were taught by the same method in class and received remedial instruction as in the previous year. In order to participate in this study, the children were brought from their regular classrooms every morning to listen in groups of 9, 10, or 19 -- according to the available accommodation in the school -- to suggestions of relaxation, to ideas of coping with emotional problems, and to suggestions of modifying attitudes towards learning. The corrective reading teachers conducted these 15-minute sessions. After the session was over, the children were returned to their respective classes. At the beginning and at the end of the school year, the classroom teachers evaluated the children's behavior in class and their attitudes toward learning. The addition of the modified hypnotic technique enabled 45 of 48 children to function better in school. The improvement ranged from decreased hyperactivity to better than average performance in class. Significant correlations were found between percent of relaxation with increased attention span (r = .40) and number of sessions attended with increased self-confidence (r = .46). Lawlor, E. D. (1976). Hypnotic intervention with 'school phobic' children. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24, 74-86. Case studies are used to illustrate the use of hypnosis in working with children who exhibit symptoms of "school phobia." Responses obtained during and after hypnosis are utilized to uncover underlying conflicts and fears. The literature (Ansbacher, 1956; Friedman, 1959; Johnson, 1957; Johnson, Falstein, Szurek, & Svendsen, 1941: Kessler, 1966; Waldfogel & Gardner, 1961) confirms the findings that a child through his symptoms has fears which he is unable to bring to consciousness and talk about. Typical are fears of abandonment by parents; fears of disaster befalling parents, especially the mother; fears based on destructive wishes toward siblings due to severe rivalry for the mother's love and attention; fears that exhibiting angry feelings will be punished by the parents; and fears of annihilation and starvation. Hypnosis has aided in restoring these children to a school environment more quickly than more traditional methods. One case is reported with excerpts from a session. The perceptions uncovered through the use of hypnosis can be utilized with children in various school settings.