1986
Chertok, Leon (1986). Psychotherapeutic transference, suggestibility. Psychotherapy, 23 (4), 563-569.
Discusses suggestion in psychotherapy and defines it as a body-affective process, an indissociable psychosociobiological entity that acts at an archaic unconscious level far beyond that of transference, mediates the influence of one individual on another, and is capable of producing manifest psychological and physiological changes. Present in all types of therapy, indirect (nondeliberate, nonintentional) suggestion is the element that plays an important role in change and can be observed in hypnotic experimentation. It is further argued that transference and suggestion are phenomena that do not altogether overlap. Suggestion is the condition of transference without which transference could not be established.
Gottschalk, Louis A. (1985). Hope and other deterrents to illness. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 39, 515-524.
Reviews animal and human research demonstrating that events during early development influence vulnerability to physical and mental illness. In addition, effectiveness of coping methods used to deal with problems of living can affect susceptibility to illness. The intervening mechanisms between stressful life experiences and illness appear to involve physiological homeostasis and immune competence.
1984
Bakker, Dirk J. (1984). The brain as a dependent variable. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 6, 1-16.
The mainstream of neuropsychological research and practice has been devoted to the impact of the brain as an independent variable on behavior as a dependent variable. Evidence is currently available to make clear that the order of causation may be reversed: Behavioral changes can have a durable impact on the brain. The results of extensive research indicate that a large number of neuroanatomical, neurophysiological, neurochemical, and neuropsychological parameters of the animal brain can be modified through environmental manipulation, sensory experience, and systematic training. Some evidence is available to show that psychological stimulation has certain effects on the physiology of the human brain. For instance, hemisphere-specific stimulation through the presentation of words flashed in a visual hemifield appears to modify the electrophysiological activity of the contralateral hemisphere in dyslexic children and to affect their subsequent reading performance. Neuropsychology may profit from paying more attention to the ecology of the human brain.
NOTES
An 18th Century anatomist in Italy, Malacarne, demonstrated increased cerebellar folds in the brains of trained (vs. untrained) dogs and birds. His approach to neuroanatomy was not continued because psychology has been more concerned with innate traits of the individual, and because of philosophical rationalism (citing Walsh, 1981). Until very recently, scientists have viewed the brain as “structurally insensitive to environmental experience” (p. 3).
Now we have evidence that animal brains are modifiable by experience, in gross morphology, fine (synapse) morphology, and neurochemicals. “Rich environments [for rats] … produce heavier and thicker cerebral cortices and callosal connections (Walsh, 1981), larger cortex/subcortex weight ratios, larger cell bodies and nuclei (Walsh, 1981), and higher metabolic activity as suggested by increased RNA/DNA ratios (Rosenzweig, Bennett, & Diamond, 1972)” (p. 4). Enrichment leads to more extensive dendritic fields (occipital and temporal cortex, some hippocampal regions); this implies that each neuron has more synapses. Researchers have found large Purkinje-cell bodies and many dendrites in richly educated monkeys.
“Some evidence is available to show that ‘preventive’ and ‘therapeutic’ environments positively affect behavioral performances of brain-lesioned animals. However, knowledge about the brain mechanisms which underly these effects is, as yet, lacking” (p. 6). Rats that were handled during the first 21 days of life exhibited different brain lateralization from rats that were not (Denenberg, cited by Marx, 1983). Those stimulated early stored memories mainly in the right hemisphere.
The author also reviews evidence that human brains are psychologically modifiable. Children with astigmatism generate weakened cortical response to visual stimulation (Freeman & Thibos, 1973), because they experience difficulty in processing some visual-spatial patterns. People who have visual-field defects due to brain damage can improve in vision when forced to make eye movements toward lighted targets flashed in the blind areas (Zihl, 1981).
The author also reviews evidence that human brains are psychologically modifiable. Children
with astigmatism generate weakened cortical response to visual stimulation (Freeman & Thibos, 1973), because they experience difficulty in processing some visual-spatial patterns. People who have visual-field defects due to brain damage can improve in vision when forced to make eye movements toward lighted targets flashed in the blind areas (Zihl, 1981).
Bakker theorizes that hemispheric control of reading shifts from right to left during the learning-to-read process of normal readers; at least some aspects of reading are successively mediated by the right hemisphere at age 6 and by the left hemisphere at age 8, according to electrophysiological data in a longitudinal study (Licht, Bakker, Kok, & Bouma, 1983). He thinks P-type dyslexia results from continuing to rely on right- hemispheric strategies, leading to slow reading with fragmentation errors and repetitions. L-type dyslexia results from prematurely adopting a left-hemispheric strategy, i.e. at the very beginning of the learning process, making child insensitive to the perceptual features of script with consequent substantive errors such as omissions and additions. Thus, P- type dyslexics presumably show functional overdevelopment of the right hemisphere and L-types of the left hemisphere. Treatment would involve specific stimulation of the hemisphere that they are ignoring.
He presents data suggesting that “some electrophysiological parameters of the cerebral hemispheres can be modified in dyslexic children through hemisphere-specific stimulation and loading, and that these modifications may induce better reading” (p. 12).
Bishay, Emil; Stevens, Grant; Lee, Chingmuh (1984). Hypnotic control of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: A case report. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 27, 22-25.
The use of hypnosis for control of bleeding during and after surgical procedures is common practice. It has also been a useful tool for control of bleeding in hemophiliac children, especially during dental procedures, and in traffic accidents. This paper presents the successful treatment with hypnosis of a patient with upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding. After treatment, the patient was discharged from the hospital without the need for surgical intervention.
NOTES
The physician explained to the patient that nothing would hurt her and that nobody would do anything against her will, that if she could “relax,” then her unconscious mind would help her control her bleeding. [Gives script used in the hypnosis.] Trance terminated after 20 minutes. “One hour later, endoscopy performed under local anesthesia revealed ‘non-bleeding gastritis, no ulcers seen.’ She had no bleeding following the hypnotherapy” (p. 23).
1983
Borgeat, Francois; Goulet, Jean (1983). Psychophysiological changes following auditory subliminal suggestions for activation and deactivation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 56, 759-766.
This study was to measure eventual psychophysiological changes resulting from auditory subliminal activation or deactivation suggestions. 18 subjects were alternately exposed to a control situation and to 25-dB activating and deactivating suggestions masked by a 40-dB white noise. Physiological measures (EMG, heart rate, skin-conductance levels and responses, and skin temperature) were recorded while subjects listened passively to the suggestions, during a stressing task that followed and after that task. Multi-variate analysis of variance showed a significant effect of the activation subliminal suggestions during and following the stressing task. This result is discussed as indicating effects of consciously unrecognized perceptions on psycho- physiological responses
-fect of the activation subliminal suggestions during and following the stressing task. This result is discussed as indicating effects of consciously unrecognized perceptions on psycho- physiological responses.
1981
Benson, Herbert; Arns, Patricia A.; Hoffman, John W. (1981). The relaxation response and hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 29 (3), 259-270.
Procedures for self- and hetero-hypnotic induction and for the elicitation of the relaxation response appear to be similar. Further, before experiencing hypnotic phenomena, either during a traditional or an active induction, a physiological state exists which is comparable to the relaxation response. This state is characterized, in part, by decreased heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure. After the physiological changes of the relaxation response occur, the individual proceeds to experience other exclusively hypnotic phenomena, such as perceptual distortions, age regression, posthypnotic suggestion, and amnesia.
Elkind, Leonard (1981). Effects of hypnosis on the aging process. Journal of the American Society of Psychosomatic Dentistry and Medicine, 28 (4), 132-137. (Also presented at the annual meeting of the Am Soc of Psychosomatic Dentistry and Medicine in San Francisco, CA)
This study investigated the possibility of altering physiological measures associated with aging through the use of posthypnotic suggestions of increased youthfulness and vitality. Subjects were 20 women ranging in age from 39 to 56 years old. They were tested individually on Morgan’s Adult Growth Examination, the AGE. Test-retest scores of the Control group were not significantly different, the median change being zero. The Experimental group, however, showed a decrease in Body Age for all of the subjects, the range of change from -3 to -18 years with a median change of -11 years.
1980
Barabasz, Arreed F. (1980). EEG alpha, skin conductance and hypnotizability in Antarctica. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 63-74.
On the basis of alternative hypotheses in the literature, 9 invited Ss undergoing wintering-over isolation at Scott Base, Antarctica, were tested for EEG alpha and hypnotizability. 8-channels of EEG, bipolar skin conductance (SC) and hypnotizability data were collected at Scott Base prior to and following the wintering-over isolation. Significant increases in alpha density and hypnotizability were found in Ss following isolation. The previously reported relationship between simple eyes closed alpha density and hypnotizability was not found prior to isolation; however, this correlation approached significance following isolation. The possible influence of psychophysiological arousability on baseline EEG alpha records was considered. Correction of EEG records using SC indices of arousal resulted in a significant correlation between EEG alpha and hypnotizability following isolation. A tendency toward significance was evident in the pre-isolation, SC corrected, correlation. The significant influence of environment on EEG alpha and hypnotizability is discussed as is the use of SC arousal indices to enhance EEG alpha/hypnotizability correlations.
1979
Barmark, Susanne M.; Gaunitz, Samuel C. B. (1979). Transcendental meditation and heterohypnosis as altered states of consciousness. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 27 (3), 227-239
The effects of transcendental meditation and relaxation-heterohypnosis on subjective phenomena and physiological arousal were examined. One group of Ss, who were experienced meditators, participated in meditation, and a second group of Ss, who were highly susceptible to hypnosis but with little hypnotic experience, were exposed to hypnosis. A period of quiet sitting served as control for Ss in each group. Neither heterohypnosis nor transcendental meditation were identified as low-arousal states. They were assumed to be similar phenomenologically altered states of consciousness, mainly characterized by changes in the distribution of attention and in body image.
1978
Barber, Theodore Xenophon (1978). ‘Hypnosis,’ suggestions, and psychosomatic phenomena: A new look from the standpoint of recent experimental studies. In Fosshage, J. L.; Olsen, P. (Ed.), Healing: Implications for psychotherapy (pp. 269-297). New York: Human Sciences Press.
NOTES
“The first part of this chapter summarizes recent experiments that indicated that suggestions (1) can prevent the skin reaction (contagious dermatitis) that is produced by plants such as poison ivy, (2) can give rise to a localized inflammation of the skin, (3) can stimulate the remission of warts, (4) can ameliorate congenital ichthyosis (fish skin disease), and (5) can stimulate additional growth of the mammary glands in adult women. The underlying theme throughout the first part of the paper is that “suggestions” (statements that something is occurring or will occur) affect cutaneous and glandular functions when subjects accept the suggestions and incorporate them into their own ongoing cognitions (their ongoing thoughts, images, and feelings). The second part of the paper (1) summarizes recent psychophysiological experiments and biofeedback studies that indicated that our thoughts, images, and feelings affect blood flow to the skin and other organs, and (2) postulates that the aforementioned phenomena produced by suggestions (e.g., the prevention of dermatitis, the production of inflammation, and the remission of warts) may be partly due to the localized alterations in blood flow that occur when the suggestions are accepted and become part of ongoing cognitions” (pp 269-270).
Benson, Herbert; Frankel, Fred H.; Apfel, Roberta; Daniels, Michael D.; Schniewind, Henry E.; Nemiah, John C.; Sifneos, Peter E.; Crassweller, Karen D.; Greenwood, Martha M.; Kotch, Jamie B.; Arns, Patricia A.; Rosner, Bernard (1978). Treatment of anxiety: A comparison of the usefulness of self-hypnosis and a meditational relaxation technique. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 30, 229-242.
We have investigated prospectively the efficacy of two nonpharmacologic relaxation techniques in the therapy of anxiety. A simple, meditational relaxation technique (MT) that elicits the changes of decreased sympathetic nervous system activity was compared to a self-hypnosis technique (HT) in which relaxation, with or without altered perceptions, was suggested. 32 patients with anxiety neurosis were divided into 2 groups on the basis of their responsivity to hypnosis: moderate-high and low responsivity. The NIT or HT was then randomly assigned separately to each member of the two
-nosis: moderate-high and low responsivity. The NIT or HT was then randomly assigned separately to each member of the two responsivity groups. Thus, 4 treatment groups were studied: moderate-high responsivity MT; low responsivity MT; moderate-high responsivity HT; and low responsivity HT. The low responsivity HT group, by definition largely incapable of achieving the altered perceptions essential to hypnosis, was designed as the control group. Patients were instructed to practice the assigned technique daily for 8 weeks. Change in anxiety was determined by three types of evaluation: psychiatric assessment; physiologic testing; and self-assessment. There was essentially no difference between the two techniques in therapeutic efficacy according to these evaluations. Psychiatric assessment revealed overall improvement in 34% of the patients and the self-rating assessment indicated improvement in 63% of the population. Patients who had moderate- high hypnotic responsivity, independent of the technique used, significantly improved on psychiatric assessment (p = 0.05) and decreased average systolic blood pressure from 126.1 to 122.5 mm Hg over the 8-week period (p = 0.048). The responsivity scores at the higher end of the hypnotic responsivity spectrum were proportionately correlated to greater decreases in systolic blood pressure (p = 0.075) and to improvement by psychiatric assessment (p = 0.003). There was, however, no consistent relation between hypnotic responsivity and the other assessments made, such as diastolic blood pressure, oxygen consumption, heart rate and the self-rating questionnaires. The meditational and self- hypnosis techniques employed in this investigation are simple to use and effective in the therapy of anxiety.
1977
Cauthen, Nelson R.; Prymak, Carole A. (1977). Meditation versus relaxation: An examination of the physiological effects of relaxation training and of different levels of experience with transcendental meditation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45 (3), 496-497.
Three groups of meditators with varying amounts of experience, a group trained in relaxation, and a pseudomeditation group were tested for changes in heart rate, respiration, skin temperature, and skin conductance during meditation or relaxation. The two more experienced groups of meditators showed decreases in heart rate during meditation while the relaxation group showed decreases after relaxing. The group trained in relaxation and the least experienced meditators showed increases in skin temperature. There were no significant changes in skin conductance or respiration before, during, or after the meditation or relaxation periods.
Crosson, B.; Meinz, R.; Laur, E.; Williams, D.; Andreychuk, T. (1977). EEG alpha training, hypnotic susceptibility, and baseline techniques. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 25, 348-360.
3 alpha feedback sessions of 40 minutes were administered after a similar baseline period without feedback to 12 Ss high in hypnotic susceptibility and 12 Ss low in hypnotic susceptibility. Hypnotic susceptibility was not a significant dimension in alpha feedback training and previously reported relationship between alpha density and hypnotic susceptibility were not generally found. Evidence did support the efficacy of the current baseline procedure over others more commonly used. The possibility under certain conditions of there being a relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and alpha density and theoretical considerations in recording baseline are discussed.
Fisher, R. (1977). On flashback and hypnotic recall. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 217-235.
This essay deals with both the intra-individual and inter-individual varieties of arousal state-bound experiences. The former are labelled as “flashbacks” while the latter embrace the great fantasms and repetitive schemes, the ever re-written plots and images of literature, art, and religion.
Flashbacks are both arousal-state and stage (i.e., set and setting) bound experiences.
Flashback and hypnotic recall differ only in the ways by which they are induced. Induction methods should be distinguished from induced states on the hyperaroused perception-hallucination and hypoaroused eprception-meditation continuum.
Flashbackers may be characterized by their (a) variability on perceptual-behavioral tasks; (b) tendency to minimize (or reduce) sensory input; (c) high resting heart rates; (d) hypnotizability; and, hence (e) preferential right-cerebral-hemispheric cognition; and (f) a display of EEG-alpha dominance in the resting, waking state.
1976
Dugan, Michelle; Sheridan, Charles (1976). Effects of instructed imagery on temperature of hands. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 42, 14.
NOTES
Sixteen college student volunteers were involved in the research. Subjects were randomly assigned to two groups, either to warm or to cool their hands. All 10 subjects attempting to cool their hands were able to cool at least one hand, and six people cooled both hands. For those trying to warm their hands, five warmed at least one hand and one was able to warm both hands. Four people were able to cool their hands without hypnosis, conditioning, or feedback.
Goleman, Daniel J.; Schwartz, Gary E. (1976). Meditation as an intervention in stress reactivity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44 (3), 456-466.
Meditation and relaxation were compared for ability to reduce stress reactions in a laboratory threat situation. Thirty experienced meditators and 30 controls either meditated or relaxed with eyes closed or with eyes open and then watched a stressor film. Stress response was assessed by phasic skin conductance, heart rate, self-report, and personality scales. Meditators and the meditation condition habituated heart rate and phasic skin conductance responses more quickly to the stressor impact and experienced less subjective anxiety. Meditation can produce a psychophysiological configuration in stress situations opposite to that seen in stress-related syndromes. Research is indicated on clinical applications and on the process whereby meditation state effects may become meditator traits.
1975
Ahlberg, D.; Lansdell, H.; Gravitz, M. A.; Chen, T. C.; Ting, C. Y.; Bak, A. F.; Blessing, D. (1975). Acupuncture and hypnosis: Effects on induced pain. Experimental Neurology, 49, 272-280.
The reactions of 14 volunteers to electrical stimulation near the supra- orbital nerve were studied under acupuncture, placebo-acupuncture, and hypnosis. As the intensity of stimulation increased, a minimum sensation, a minimum pain, and then a maximum or intolerable pain sensation were produced. Under hypnosis the average intensity of the stimulus for producing these sensations was higher than before the trance induction. Under acupuncture and placebo-acupuncture no clear increase in current intensity was observed. Acupuncture, as well as hypnosis, did not consistently change the blood, blood pressure, pulse rate, EKG, respiratory rate, or EEG.
Bender, V. L.; Navarett, F. J.; Nuttman, D. (1975). Effects of neutral hypnosis on a conditioned physiological response. Psychological Reports, 37, 1155-1160.
The objective of the present experiment was to determine whether hypnosis without explicit suggestion of analgesia would diminish physiological responses to an operationally defined painful shock stimulus. Muscle tension (EMG) was significantly lower during hypnosis than pre- or posthypnosis. Pulse rate remained stable throughout all conditions. Also, the question of whether a tone paired with shock might acquire some unique property because of that association was investigated. It was found that EMG response to the tone alone was significantly greater than to the tone-shock combination, in prehypnosis and posthypnosis, but not during hypnosis.
Clawson, T. A.; Swade, R. H. (1975). The hypnotic control of blood flow and pain: The cure of warts and the potential for the use of hypnosis in the treatment of cancer. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 17 (3), 160-169.
Case histories show that hypnosis can control massive bleeding and pain, and it can remove warts, probably by stopping blood flow to them. We propose that blood flow to cancerous tumors can likewise be controlled, which could destroy them outright, or which control could be a useful adjunct to chemo- or radio-therapy.
1970
Evans, Michael B.; Paul, Gordon L. (1970). Effects of hypnotically suggested analgesia on physiological and subjective responses to cold stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35 (3), 362-371.
Relative effects of suggested analgesia and hypnotic induction were evaluated with regard to reduction of stress responses (self-report, heart rate, pulse volume) to the physical application of ice-water stress. Four groups (N = 16 each) of undergraduate female Ss, equated on hypnotic susceptibility, were run individually, receiving (a) hypnotic induction plus analgesic suggestion, (b) hypnotic induction alone, (c) waking self-relaxation plus analgesic suggestion, or (d) waking self-relaxation alone. The major findings were that suggestion, not hypnotic induction procedures, produced reductions in the self-report of distress, and that the degree of reduction was related to hypnotic susceptibility in both “hypnotic and “waking” conditions. Neither suggestion nor hypnotic induction procedures resulted in reduction of the physiological stress responses monitored in this study. Several methodological issues are discussed. Although findings add to the bulk of evidence supporting the “skeptical” view of hypnotic phenomena, results are related to other literature, suggesting that an adequate evaluation of hypnotic analgesia as used clinically has not yet been undertaken.
nor hypnotic induction procedures resulted in reduction of the physiological stress responses monitored in this study. Several methodological issues are discussed. Although findings add to the bulk of evidence supporting the “skeptical” view of hypnotic phenomena, results are related to other literature, suggesting that an adequate evaluation of hypnotic analgesia as used clinically has not yet been undertaken.
1969
Baykushev, S. (1969). Hyperventilation as an accelerated hypnotic induction technique. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 17, 20-24.
Describes a rationale and procedure for the use of hyperventilation as a facilitator of hypnotic trance induction. Results with 56 neurotic patients are reported. (Spanish & German summaries) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Dittborn, Julio M.; Shor, Ronald E. (1968). A test of the effectiveness of intermittent photic stimulation on hypnotic performance. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 16, 165-178.
ATTEMPTED TO CONFIRM THE FINDINGS OF A. G. HAMMER AND W. J. ARKINS (SEE 39:1) OF SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER IMPROVEMENT IN HYPNOTIC PERFORMANCE AS A RESULT OF 11-CPS INTERMITTENT PHOTIC STIMULATION THAN WITH FREQUENCIES OUTSIDE THE RANGE OF EEG ALPHA ACTIVITY. USING THE BRAIN WAVE SYNCHRONIZER, 3 GROUPS OF SS WERE GIVEN STIMULATION AT 5, 11, AND 30 CPS. TESTS OF HYPNOTIC PERFORMANCE WERE MADE DURING AND IMMEDIATELY AFTER STIMULATION, AND A WEEK OR MORE LATER. NO EVIDENCE OF FREQUENCY-SPECIFIC EFFECT WAS OBTAINED, AND THE ORIGINAL FINDING WAS NOT CONFIRMED. (SPANISH + GERMAN SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1997
Bartlett, Edmund E.; Faw, Terry T.; Liebert, Robert M. (1967). The effects of suggestions of alertness in hypnosis on pupillary response: Report on a single subject. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15 (4), 189-192.
THE PUPIL SIZE OF A SINGLE S WAS RECORDED UNDER 2 TYPES OF HYPNOTIC SUGGESTION: ALERTNESS INSTRUCTIONS AND TRADITIONAL RELAXATION INSTRUCTIONS. IT WAS FOUND THAT THE SIZE OF THE PUPIL INCREASED SIGNIFICANTLY UNDER ALERTNESS INSTRUCTIONS. THIS RESULT WAS TAKEN AS FURTHER CORROBORATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS THAT CHANGES IN VARIOUS PARAMETERS OF AROUSAL APPARENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH HYPNOSIS MAY BE ATTRIBUTED TO SPECIFIABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INSTRUCTIONS USED RATHER THAN TO STABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE “STATE” OF HYPNOSIS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Dittborn, J. M.; O’Connell, D. N. (1967). Behavioral sleep, physiological sleep and hypnotizability. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15, 181-188.
A SLEEP-INDUCTION PROCEDURE REQUIRING MANUAL RESPONSE TO A REPETITIVE AUDITORY SIGNAL WAS ADMINISTERED TO 52 SS WHO HAD CLEAR ALPHA ACTIVITY IN THEIR WAKING EEG AND WHOSE HYPNOTIZABILITY WAS KNOWN. THE OCCURRENCE OF SLEEP WAS DEFINED BY PHYSIOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND SUBJECTIVE CRITERIA. NEITHER THE TENDENCY TO DEVELOP EEG SLEEP NOR THE ABILITY OF SOME SS TO RESPOND WHILE IN EEG SLEEP WAS RELATED TO HYPNOTIZABILITY. HYPNOTIZABILITY WAS RELATED TO A TYPE OF DISSOCIATION BETWEEN EEG SLEEP AND BOTH BEHAVIORAL AND SUBJECTIVE SLEEP SHOWN BY 5 SS, ALL HIGHLY HYPNOTIZABLE. (SPANISH + GERMAN SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1965
Agosti, E.; Camerota, G. (1965). Some effects of hypnotic suggestion on respiratory function. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13 (3), 149-157.
Several respiratory indices were measured in 10 Ss in 3 states: at rest, with hypnotic suggestion of relaxation, and with hypnotic instructions to imagine muscular work. The same suggestions were given to 10 control Ss in the waking state. The suggestion of relaxation produced a decrease in pulmonary ventilation in both groups, although it was substantial only in the hypnotic group which started from a higher baseline level. The imagined work produced an increase in ventilation, especially in the hypnotic group. However, in both instances because of compensatory changes in respiratory efficiency the actual uptake of oxygen remained almost unaffected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1964
Black, Stephen (1964). Mind and body. London: Kimber.
NOTES
Defines psychosomatic disease as one that responds to psychotherapy. Believes only 5% are highly hypnotizable, that hypnosis is learnable in 1/2 hour, that hypnosis is not a useful treatment for psychosomatic disorders because you can’t use interpretation [of unconscious]. The ‘unconscious’ is “… a complex of informational systems derived from such primaeval mechanisms” (p. 133). “Primaeval mind is involved in these mechanisms of genetics and immunology” (p. 133). “There is thus a ‘somatic mind’ which is unconscious and presumably without any means of verbalization of experience–and a ‘cerebral mind’ which is conscious” (p. 133). The dividing line is not clear.
Rapport is discussed on pp. 160, 169 as one of the spontaneous characteristics of hypnosis, in the absence of suggestion. The same for posthypnotic suggestion (rapport and amnesia). Spontaneous _physiological_ changes in hypnosis relate to mind-body relationships (p. 169)
Conditioned reflex is discussed on p. 161
“…the subjective evidence indicates that a perceptual change involving any sensory modality can be produced by DSUH” [direct suggestion under hypnosis] p. 178. Suggestion can selectively affect different parts of the body p. 197.
Research: “Hypnosis is not only the most important and practical way of _proving_ the existence of the unconscious–which is still in doubt in some circles–but is in fact the only way in which unconscious mechanisms can be manipulated under repeatable experimental conditions for purposes of investigation” (p. 152).
Mind-body is “amenability to control” Catatonia, which characterizes both animal and human hypnosis, seen in hypnosis, is induced by constriction (i.e. disorientation). The Cartesian concept of mind and body tends to confuse the issue p. 157.
Rapport is discussed (p. 157).
Suggestion (p. 159) “It was this concept of ‘suggestion’–which so obviously parallels ‘amenability to control’ in animals–that eventually established hypnosis in the French schools of psychiatry as a state of increased suggestibility. … still the standard definition of hypnosis in most medical psychiatric textbooks and in lay dictionaries” (p. 159).
Black (1969) did some biochemical sleuthing to learn how information transmitted by words becomes information encoded somatically, as when psychosomatic allergies flare and recede or disappear. What accounts for suggestion “curing” an allergic skin reaction in one part of the body while another part not included in the suggestion remains reactive? What accounts for the instantaneous skin allergy cure which sometimes occurs with suggestion (in 24 hours)?
Skin sensitivity tests in highly hypnotizable Ss who were also very allergic were inhibited by direct suggestion under hypnosis under highly controlled experimental conditions–and in one subject the effect (inhibition) was relatively permanent–ruling out (he suggests) a neurological mechanism. He did further experiments to examine whether the result was due to an instant neurological mechanism and a long-term endocrinal mechanism.
p. 212 He ruled out peripheral blood flow as the cause of diminished skin sensitivity (there was no change in blood flow with suggestions of heat or cold). Therefore decrease in blood flow couldn’t explain in neurovascular terms the ‘instant’ inhibition of skin sensitivity (allergy) tests. Was it due to systemic–especially adrenal– changes? He demonstrated increases in plasma cortisol under hypnosis with suggestions of fear. On p. 230 he summarizes the facts he established by skin sensitivity tests, plasma- cortisol studies, and histology – endocrinological.
Brady, J. P.; Levitt, E. E. (1964). Hypnotically-induced ‘anosmia’ to ammonia. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12, 18-20.
The procedure to demonstrate anosmia by the inhalation of ammonia is discussed. Deeply hypnotized Ss who are not knowledgeable of the relevant facts of physiology may fail to respond to ammonia fumes when it is suggested that they have no sense of smell (anosmia). However, persons who, in fact, are anosmic do respond to ammonia fumes because they are a powerful stimulus to the pain fibers in the nasal mucosa. This procedure illustrates that the crucial factor in the response of the hypnotized S is not the actual facts of anatomy and physiology, but the S””s concept of them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Furneaux, W. D. (1964). The heat-illusion test and the structure of suggestibility. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12 (3), 169-180.
2 similar forms of the heat-illusion test are shown to correlate to a smaller degree than would be expected if they measure the same attribute. The 2 versions also differ in the way in which they correlate with other suggestibility tests. It is shown that linear regression techniques are not appropriate for analyzing the data concerned. The interaction of various nonlinear relationships with a difference in “difficulty,” as between the 2 forms of the illusion, seems to provide an adequate
with a difference in “difficulty,” as between the 2 forms of the illusion, seems to provide an adequate explanation for the results. It is suggested that these nonlinear relationships may indicate the existence of an attribute which prevents some Ss from responding to any suggestibility test, irrespective of what the specific mechanisms of response may be. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1963
Black, Stephen; Edholm, O. G.; Fox, R. H.; Kidd, D. J. (1963). The effect of suggestion under hypnosis on the peripheral circulation in man. Clinical Science, 26, 223-230.
NOTES
“Summary. 1. The effects on the circulation in the forearm and hand of both direct and indirect suggestion under hypnosis of thermal stimuli have been studied. 2. The induction of hypnosis did not significantly alter the forearm blood flow, but a small reduction in hand blood flow was usually observed. Pulse rate in general slowed slightly as did respiration rate. 3. The effect of body heating on forearm and hand blood flow was not modified by hypnosis. 4. Direct suggestion under hypnosis of body heating or body cooling, with and without body heating, produced only small changes. 5. The changes associated with suggestion were not related to the thermal suggestion. Whatever the suggestion, the usual response was a reduction in hand blood flow and an increase in forearm blood flow. 6. The rise of body temperature with heating was not modified by direct suggestion, under hypnosis, of body cooling. 7. No change in body temperature could be elicited by suggestion. 8. In a few experiments marked changes in forearm blood flow occurred. These appeared to resemble the changes in the circulation produced by emotional stimuli. 9. The smaller changes more frequently observed were also similar to those produced by mild emotional stimuli” (p. 229). [N.B. The Subjects were normal, healthy adults, N = 9, between 21-45 years old; highly hypnotizable, amnesic for trance.]
Damaser, E. C.; Shor, R. E.; Orne, M. T. (1963). Physiological effects during hypnotically requested emotions. Psychosomatic Medicine, 25, 334-343.
4 emotional states were used: fear, calmness, happiness, and depression. The Ss were 17 college undergrads divided into 2 groups (8 hypnotized Ss, 9 simulators). “It was demonstrated that consistent physiological changes occur in response to hypnotically requested emotions, but that similar changes occur just as readily during waking control conditions and can be produced just as clearly by Ss simulating hypnosis.” (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1961
Farber, S. M.; Wilson, R. H. L. (1961). Control of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. (Reviewed in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 1964, 7, 2)
NOTES
Contains papers presented by multidisciplinary group at a symposium. Covers broad areas of: 1. The mind and its integration. 2. The influence of drugs on the individual. 3. The mind and society 4. The effect of technology on the mind 5. Restrictions and freedom of the mind
1960
Diamant, J.; Dufek, M.; Hoskovec, J.; Kristof, M.; Pekarek, V.; Roth, B.; Velek, M. (1960). An electroencephalographic study of the waking state and hypnosis with particular reference to subclinical manifestations of sleep activity. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 8, 199-212.
(Author”s Conclusions) EEG records have been investigated in 10 patients in a waking state and under hypnosis. It was shown that no differences existed between these two states in terms of EEG. EEG signs of decreased wakefulness can be demonstrated in some of the patients, but these were also present without hypnosis. This latter effect appears to be subclinical sleep activity (Roth), frequently seen particularly in neurosis. Reactibility to external stimuli under hypnosis was also, in most cases, equivalent to reactions in the waking state. The authors incline to the view that EEG data does not support the concept that the nature of hypnosis and sleep is qualitatively the same.
1959
Barber, Theodore Xenophon; Coules, John (1959). Electrical skin conductance and galvanic skin response during ‘Hypnosis’. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 7 (2), 79-92.
NOTES 1
“Summary and Conclusions
“Six ‘good’ hypnotic Ss were given a ten-minute ‘hypnotic induction’ and a series of ‘hypnotic tests.’ Both basic skin conductance and momentary variations in skin conductance (GSR) were recorded during the experiment.