Monteiro, Kenneth P.; Zimbardo, Philip G. (1987). The path from classroom seating to hypnotizability–a dead end: A brief communication. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 35, 83-86.
It has been proposed that classroom seating behavior predicts brain functioning involved in hypnotizability and in other cognitive processes. The present authors attempted to test this hypothesis and to replicate some earlier findings. The relationships between classroom seating preference, actual seating location, and hypnotizability in male and female students were investigated. No relationship was found between any of the seating measures and hypnotizability. These findings lend no support for the hypothesis that classroom seating predicts hypnotizability. This failure to replicate is discussed in relationship to the lack of theoretical grounding for the seating-hypnosis connection.
The authors review the literature, then present and test specific hypotheses that right-side seating preferences would be correlated with hypnotizability for males, while actual seating on the right side of the class would be associated with higher hypnotizability scores for females. This pattern should be more robust for right-handed than for left- handed students. They found no support for these hypotheses. They suggest that other measures of cognitive processing may correlate with a social behavior such as classroom seating. Monteiro & Zimbardo (unpublished ms.) found that the variables of field independence and field sensitivity predicted actual seating behavior in males and seating preference in females.
1986
Belicki, Kathryn; Belicki, Denis (1986). Predisposition for nightmares: A study of hypnotic ability, vividness of imagery, and absorption. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42 (5), 714-718.
The relationships of nightmare frequency to hypnotic ability, vividness of visual imagery, and the tendency to become absorbed in fantasy-like experiences were examined. Subjects were 841 undergraduate university students who participated in group tests of hypnotic ability, after which they estimated the number of nightmares that they had experienced in the prior year. In addition, 406 of the subjects completed Marks’ Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire, and Rotenberg and Bowers’ Absorption scale. Of the subjects, 76% reported experiencing at least one nightmare in the prior year; 8.3% indicated one or more per month. Individuals with frequent nightmares scored higher on hypnotizability, vividness of visual imagery, and absorption.
620, Belicki & Bowers, 1982 ABSTRACT: Investigated the role of demand characteristics in dream change by comparing dream report change following pre- and postsleep administrations of instructions to pay attention to specific dream content. This design was based on the assumption that if presleep instructions merely distort dream reports rather than influence actual dreams, report change should be observable following a postsleep instruction. 42 undergraduates were prescreened with the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (Form A), which allowed experimenters to examine the role of hypnotizability in dream change. Significant differences were observed only following the presleep instructions. It is concluded that report distortion as a result of paying attention to a dimension of dream content was insufficient to account for dream report change following presleep instructions. Hypnotic ability correlated significantly with the amount of dream change.
Lynn, Steven Jay; Rhue, Judith W. (1986). The fantasy-prone person: Hypnosis, imagination, and creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 404-408.
Experimenters selected subjects who ranged along the continuum of fantasy proneness and assessed hypnotizability, absorption, vividness of mental imagery (QMI; Sheehan, 1967), response to waking suggestion (Creative Imagination Scale), creativity, and social desirability (Crowne & Marlowe). Fantasy-proneness was evaluated with the Inventory of Childhood Memories and Imaginings (Wilson & Barber, 1981). Strong support was secured for J. R. Hilgard’s construct of imaginative involvement and Wilson and Barber’s contention that fantasy prone persons can be distinguished from others in terms of fantasy and related cognitive processes. Fantasizers were found to outscore subjects in both comparison groups on all of the measures of fantasy, imagination, and creativity, with social desirability used as a covariate. Low fantasy-prone subjects were no less creative or less responsive to hypnosis than their medium fantasy-prone counterparts.
Mitchell, George P.; Lundy, Richard M. (1986). The effects of relaxation and imagery inductions on responses to suggestions. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 34, 98-109.
Theoretical attempts to understand the meaning and importance of induction procedures in producing hypnotic phenomena suggest that 2 critical components, relaxation and imagery, should be isolated and their relative effect on hypnotic responding studied. Objectively and subjectively scored responses to 12 hypnotic suggestions, which had followed relaxation, imaginal, or combined inductions, were obtained from 59 Ss, divided into 3 levels of hypnotizability. Regardless of hypnotizability level, the combined induction led to a greater subjective report of hypnotic response than
hypnotic response than did either the relaxation or the imagery inductions; and the relaxation led to a greater subjective report than the imagery induction. It may follow that the subjective experience of hypnosis is facilitated by inductions which include relaxation. The inductions were equally effective in producing objectively measured behavioral responses. There were no significant interactions found between induction type and hypnotizability level.
(From the Discussion Section). As suggested by Sacerdote (1970), the combination procedure was the most generally effective in producing hypnotic responses. The difference between combined and imagery inductions reached statistical significance on four dependent variables, and the difference between combined and relaxation reached significance on three. It may also be of interest that Ss receiving the combined procedure scored consistently higher on all nine dependent variables.
A somewhat unexpected finding was that the relaxation induction produced scores on four of the dependent variables that were statistically higher than the imagery induction scores. Considering the difficulty of isolating relaxation and imagery components, it is quite noteworthy that these differences between inductions were found.
The four variables in which the combination and relaxation conditions produced significantly higher scores than the imagery condition were subjective reports–subjective score, degree hypnotized, response volition, and Field Inventory. In contrast to Ss in the imagery induction, Ss in the other two induction conditions believed that they were responding more, felt that their responses were more nonvolitional, and felt that they were more deeply hypnotized.
The fact that relaxation instructions were present in both conditions that were superior to the imagery condition would appear to support Edmonston’s (1981) position which posits relaxation as essential for the production of the state of neutral hypnosis. For Edmonston the condition of neutral hypnosis is defined as the relaxed state and precedes other phenomena, such as dissociation and increased suggestibility, which other theoreticians may include in the definition of hypnosis.
However, the statistically significant superior effect of the combined over the relaxation induction on three measures casts doubt on Edmonston’s position. The S believes that he or she is more deeply hypnotized and is responding less volitionally when an imagery component is combined with relaxation. The Ss also responded more to the Field Inventory when the combined induction was used.
Another explanation for imagery’s relatively poor showing may lie in Ss’ differential expectations. The Ss, especially those with previous experience with a traditional hypnotic induction, as was the case in the present study, may not expect to be hypnotized when presented with an imagery alone induction. Such expectations, of course, might reduce responses. On the other hand, there is no reason to believe that the reduced expectation in the imagery condition would not affect the behavioral responses as well, and such was not the case.
Thus, we may be left with the explanation that relaxation adds to the subjective experience of hypnosis. This is in keeping with Edmonston’s (1981) position as well as with previous research, such as that by Hilgard and Tart (1966), which finds traditional inductions, with their relaxation components, superior to nontraditional inductions, such as fantasy or task-motivational. If future research should find that bodily involvements such as the physical exertion or repetitive motor behavior (Banyai and Hilgard, 1976) lead to the same level of subjective experience as relaxation did, then we may need to broaden the concept of the somatic component beyond relaxation alone.
In terms of the behavioral compliance of Ss, the results of the present study are in accord with some previous studies in finding all procedures equally effective. Neither imagery, relaxation, nor the combined procedure was superior for the behavioral measure.
Personality factors (social desirability, internality/externality, and absorption) did not affect the basic findings. To the degree that the Tellegen scales measure the ability to engage in imagery there seems to be little basis for believing that imagery ability is related to the general findings.
Sarbin (1983) would call the inductions studied here ‘entrance rituals,’ and he has recently asked in his review of Edmonston’s book, “Which ritual is more suitable… [p. 58]’ for preparing S to respond in various hypnotic ways? One answer from the present results is that an entrance ritual should include muscular relaxation if one wants a better subjective response from S. From Sarbin’s point of view, the relaxation component may be more ego-involving, producing more subjective experience and meaning for S.
If one wants to produce only a behavioral response, either a relaxation or imagery ritual
In terms of the behavioral compliance of Ss, the results of the present study are in accord with some previous studies in finding all procedures equally effective. Neither imagery, relaxation, nor the combined procedure was superior for the behavioral measure.
Personality factors (social desirability, internality/externality, and absorption) did not affect the basic findings. To the degree that the Tellegen scales measure the ability to engage in imagery there seems to be little basis for believing that imagery ability is related to the general findings.
Sarbin (1983) would call the inductions studied here ‘entrance rituals,’ and he has recently asked in his review of Edmonston’s book, “Which ritual is more suitable… [p. 58]’ for preparing S to respond in various hypnotic ways? One answer from the present results is that an entrance ritual should include muscular relaxation if one wants a better subjective response from S. From Sarbin’s point of view, the relaxation component may be more ego-involving, producing more subjective experience and meaning for S.
If one wants to produce only a behavioral response, either a relaxation or imagery ritual will serve.
1985
Kerry Buhk; Rhue, Judith; Henry, Stephanie; Lynn, Steven Jay (1985, November). Fantasy proneness: Are their word associations richer?. [Paper] Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Asheville, NC.
Experimenters screened 7000 students to get 6 samples of fantasy prone Ss (top 2.4% on Wilson and Barber’s ICMI). They found less association between fantasy proneness and hypnotizability than did Wilson and Barber.
They had fantasizers hallucinate a second cup next to a first styrofoam cup. Results were that 87% of High fantasizers, < 50% Medium fantasizers, < 25% Low fantasizers could do it, but they didn't describe seeing the hallucinated cup "as real as real" as Wilson and Barber said they did.
Experimenters were concerned about context effects (expectancy) because the Creativity and Fantasy Proneness tests were run proximal in time, so they separated in time the administration of Fantasy Prone and Creativity tests and also looked at word associations.
23 High and 20 Low fantasy prone students selected by ICMI, which was administered to Subjects 18 mos before the creativity study. At the time of the creativity study, Ss were informed they were randomly picked. There were two 90' sessions, counterbalanced.
Sessions: 1. Hallucinate image of R.A. and of styrofoam cup. Other tests were administered for intelligence and personality: Shipley-Hartford, MMPI, Crowne-Marlowe, etc. 2. Creativity tests (Revised Art Scale, Hilgard's Alternate Uses; story production which was scored on detail, imagery and fantasy and on imagery nouns.)
Results of this study which was independent of context (i.e. the tests being correlated were administered independently of each other, separated by time). 1. Fantasizers were more creative than low fantasizers on both Creativity Scales. 2. Fantasizers show more divergent thinking on Hilgard Alternate Uses test, but relationship between fantasy proneness and creativity were not strong, r = .30. 3. Fantasizers and non fantasizers did not differ on the story measures! This diverges from Wilson and Barber's results. Fantasizers may have more vivid images, but storytelling does not capture that.
Kunzendorf, Robert G.; Benoit, Michelle (1985-86). Spontaneous post-hypnotic amnesia and spontaneous rehypnotic recovery in repressors. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 5 (4), 303-310.
The Salpetriere school of hypnosis posited that _true_ hypnotic effects occur spontaneously in people with repressive tendencies. Consistent with this early position, the current study indicates that both spontaneous amnesia after hypnosis and spontaneous recovery during rehypnosis are statistically associated with repression (but not with hypnotic suggestibility). In contrast, both suggested forgetting and suggested recovery are statistically associated with hypnotic suggestibility (but not with repression). Whereas the latter effects of suggestibility are attributable to the demand characteristics of hypnotic suggestions, the spontaneous effects of hypnosis on repressors' memories are not reducible to social psychological principles.
1982
Hilgard, Josephine R.; LeBaron, Samuel (1982). Relief of anxiety and pain in children and adolescents with cancer: Quantitative measures and clinical observations. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 30, 417-442.
Children and adolescents with cancer, chiefly forms of leukemia, aged 6 to 19 years, underwent medical treatments which required repeated bone marrow aspirations, normally a painful and anxiety-provoking experience. Data were obtained in baseline bone marrow observations on 63 patients, who were then offered the opportunity to volunteer for hypnotic help in pain control. Of the 24 patients who accepted hypnosis, 9 were highly hypnotizable. 10 of the 19 reduced self-reported pain substantially by the first hypnotic treatment (the prompt pain reducers) and 5 more reduced self-reported pain by the second treatment (the delayed pain reducers) while none of the 5 less hypnotizable patients accomplished this. The latter benefitted by reducing anxiety. Short case reports illustrate the variety of experiences.
Analysis of baseline observations before any therapeutic intervention revealed age and sex differences. The difference between self-reported and observed pain was not statistically significant for patients under age 10 but was significant for the patients age 10 and older (p<.001). There were minor but significant sex differences both in observed pain (p<.01) and in self-reported pain (p<.05), with the females reporting more pain.
1981
Fromm, Erika; Brown, Daniel P.; Hurt, Stephen W.; Oberlander, Joab Z; Boxer, Andrew M.; Pfeifer, Gary (1981). The phenomena and characteristics of self-hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 29 (3), 189-247.
Self-hypnosis and hetero-hypnosis were compared, and self-hypnosis was studied longitudinally. Results indicated that absorption and the fading of the general reality orientation are characteristics of both hetero-hypnosis and self-hypnosis. The differentiating characteristics lie in the areas of attention and ego receptivity. Expansive, free-floating attention and ego receptivity to stimuli coming from within are state-specific for self-hypnosis, while concentrative attention and receptivity to stimuli coming from one outside source--the hypnotist on whom the subject concentrates his attention--are state- specific for laboratory defined hetero-hypnosis.
Attempts to produce age regression and positive or negative hallucinations are markedly more successful in hetero-hypnosis. Imagery is much richer in self-hypnosis than in hetero-hypnosis. Self-hypnosis requires adaptation to the state: in the beginning of self-hypnosis there is a good deal of anxiety and self-doubt. As the subject feels more comfortable in the self-hypnotic state, he spends less time worrying about failures in self-suggestion, his ability to enter trance quickly and easily increases, as does the fading of the general reality orientation, trance depth, and absorption. An attempt was also made in the present study to find personality characteristics related to the ability to experience self-hypnosis.
1978
Hiscock, Merrill (1978). Imagery assessment through self-report: What do imagery questionnaires measure?. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 223-229.
Four studies examined imagery questionnaires and addressed issues of reliability, agreement among different questionnaires, social desirability, and construct validity. The Betts, Paivio, and Gordon scales were examined. In two studies the Betts and Paivio correlated .45-.50, but correlations involving the Gordon were inconsistent from one study to the next. Imagery measures generally were not influenced by social desirability. Factor analysis indicated that subjective and objective measures of visualization are independent. Concludes that imagery is not a unitary construct and that criteria other than visuospatial tests may be appropriate for validating imagery questionnaires.
1977
Grant, Guy (1977). The psychophysiology and hypnotherapeutic management of cancer. Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 5, 35-49.
Reviews research on psychophysiology of cancer, effect of stress on host resistance, cancer prediction from personality traits, psychological theories of cancer aetiology, and psychological characteristics of patients with different types of neoplasms. The hypnotherapy of cancer patients is outlined in terms of its effect upon the malignancy, relief of discomfort, and psyche of the cancer patient. Recommends direction of hypnotherapeutic treatment of cancer patients.
1976
Cooper, Leslie M.; London, Perry (1976). Children's hypnotic susceptibility, personality, and EEG patterns. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24, 140-148.
19 boys and 16 girls, aged 7 to 16, were given the EEG and then the Children's Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, while a parent watched. About 1 week later, after some separate tests and interviews, each child was given a puzzle to solve in the parent's presence, while Es recorded offers and requests for help. Hypnotic susceptibility was positively correlated with the alpha duration with eyes open, but not with eyes closed. Both susceptibility and alpha duratino tended to be negatively correlated with age. Highly susceptible children tended to wait longer than low susceptibles before asking parents for help with the puzzle, and their parents tended to be more strict, anxious, and impatient than did the parents of low susceptible children.
King, Dennis R.; McDonald, Roy D. (1976). Hypnotic susceptibility and verbal conditioning. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24, 29-37.
18 Subjects highly susceptible to hypnosis and 18 Subjects refractory to hypnosis were studied in a verbal conditioning task modeled after the one used by Taffel (1955). Results indicated that the highly susceptible group showed significantly greater conditioning than the low group. Awareness of the reinforcement contingency by S was not related to the learning task nor to hypnotic susceptibility. A measure of S's attitude toward the reinforcement cue during learning showed that the highly susceptible group had a more positive set toward the cue, whereas the low group tended to respond to it in a neutral or negative manner. Results were interpreted in terms of the theoretical nature of hypnotic susceptibility
They review literature on attempts to correlate hypnotizability with verbal conditioning ability.
Volunteer students participated; screened by HGSHS:A: highs 10-12, lows 0-4.
Verbal conditioning procedure: S viewed 100 3x5 cards on which were a two- syllable, past tense verb, below which typed in upper case letters on one line were the pronouns I, WE, HE, SHE, THEY, and YOU (randomly assigned to different orders). E was blind to hypnotizability. E instructed S to make up a sentence using the verb and a pronoun; gave no response for first 20 trials; said "good" to usage of I or WE during conditioning.
Afterwards, S filled in an Awareness Questionnaire (What was purpose? If E gave cues, what were they? If you noticed cues, what do you think they indicated?) and attitude toward the reinforcement cue (Did you notice that I did anything special? What? Did I say "good" for a special reason? What was the reason for my saying "good"? How did hearing the word "good" affect you during the experiment? IN a positive, negative, or neutral way?
Results. Groups did not differ at baseline but did differ at Blocks 2 (highs 9.7 vs lows 6.3; p<.p<.05) and 3 (highs 10.4 vs lows 6.3; p<.05). Although the High group continued to maintain a somewhat higher level of responding than the Low group during extinction (9.8 vs 7.6), this difference did not reach statistical significance. (The graph shows an increase for Lows during extinction!)
Using a liberal definition of awareness and a learning index computed for each S by subtracting his operant level of response from the mean number of correct responses shown during the 3 blocks of acquisition trials, Subjects were ordered and a median test applied; contingency coefficient of .28 not significant (p<.10).
Attitude significantly differentiated High and Low hypnotizability groups (see Table 2) with Highs more often responding in positive manner to reinforcement cue and Lows giving a neutral rating. Awareness of reinforcement contingency was equally represented in High and Low groups. The Aware High Positive groups learning index differed significantly from Aware Low Neutral group (p<.01); the Unaware Low Positive group (p<.05); and the Unaware Low Neutral group (p<.001).
Thus, the Aware High Positive group's learning index score was significantly higher than that of the 3 Low groups. Also, the Unaware High Positive group differed significantly from the Unaware Low Neutral group (p<.05). No other High groups differed from the Low groups and none of the High groups differed among themselves.
Among the Low groups, only the Unaware Low Positive group differed significantly from the Unaware Low Neutral group (p<.05).
Discussion. Data show that hypnotizability is important in response to verbal conditioning, extending findings of Das (1958) by showing that primary suggestibility is associated with operant as well as classical conditioning but also those of Weiss et al. (1960) in illustrating that higher hypnotic susceptibility leads to enhanced verbal conditioning, using an improved measure of hypnotic susceptibility.
Awareness of reinforcement contingencies is not sufficient to account for subject differences in verbal conditioning; the characteristics tapped by HGSHS:A produce conditioning which cannot be accounted for by awareness alone.
extending findings of Das (1958) by showing that primary suggestibility is associated with operant as well as classical conditioning but also those of Weiss et al. (1960) in illustrating that higher hypnotic susceptibility leads to enhanced verbal conditioning, using an improved measure of hypnotic susceptibility.
Awareness of reinforcement contingencies is not sufficient to account for subject differences in verbal conditioning; the characteristics tapped by HGSHS:A produce conditioning which cannot be accounted for by awareness alone.
The fact that high susceptible Subjects here rated E's cue more positively than low susceptible Subjects is further consistent with some of the personological descriptions associated with hypnotic susceptibility which have been offered by Hilgard (1968). In addition, Cairns and Lewis (1962) and Spielberger et al. (1962) found that persons who assigned more positive value to the kind of reinforcement present in verbal conditioning experiments produced greater conditioning than Subjects whose attitudes were less favorable or non-committal toward the reinforcement. This relationship is not clear-cut in the present data in that although he High groups had an overall more positive attitude regarding reinforcement, only the Aware High Positive group learned better than all the Low groups, while the only other High group learning better than a Low group was the Unaware High Positive which had a significantly better learning index score than the Unaware Low Neutral group. Moreover, positive attitude did not differentiate learning within the High groups or the Low groups. Thus, the present data are unclear regarding the role attitude plays in the acquisition of verbally conditioned responses.
The roles of awareness and attitude could probably be better defined in future research using larger experimental groups. The attitude measure employed here was a gross one and a more sophisticated assessment of the valence characteristics of reinforcement cues could reveal more complex relationships in subsequent research. In addition, a more careful assessment than was done here of the role of cooperation and demand characteristics would contribute substantially to understanding more completely the effect of awareness on these phenomena.
The general indications regarding attitude may in part account for the increased interest in production of conditioned responses in Figure 1 shown by the Low group (graph) during the extinction phase of this experiment. Although highly susceptible Subjects show a decrease in the correct response with nonreinforcement, low susceptible Subjects begin to evidence an increase in the correct response. The attitude measure indicates that Subjects in the Low group did not respond positively to the reinforcement cue, and one of these Subjects reported in the interview that he did not like being told what to do by the E. It can be speculated that these Subjects were aware of the reinforcement contingency but did not "cooperate" until the reinforcement was absent. This follows the interpretation of Farber (1963) who found that aware Subjects who conformed to the demand characteristics of the experimental situation showed greater verbal conditioning than those who were aware and nonconforming. It thus appears that a willingness to go along with E's expectations and a positive, cooperative attitude are common features in individuals who make good hypnotic Subjects and who evidence an enhanced propensity for verbal conditioning.
Lenox, J. R.; Bonny, H. (1976). The hypnotizability of chronic alcoholics. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 24, 419-425.
Research on the hypnotizability of alcoholics is rare, contradictory, and fails to consider the age of alcoholic samples, who are much older than college norm groups. 36 male chronic alcoholics were given the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Forms A and B of Shor and E. Orne (1962, 1963a), administered individually and then averaged. Alcoholics scored lower, but not significantly so, than controls matched for age and sex. An expected negative correlation of age with hypnotizability was not found. The implications of these results for past studies are discussed.
Miller, Lawrence J. (1976). A comparison of hypnotic susceptibility for internal and external locus of control subjects in hetero- and self-hypnotic treatments (Dissertation). Dissertation Abstracts International, 37, 978-979.
"This study investigated the use of self- and hetero-hypnosis with internal and external locus of control subjects. Fifty-eight subjects, matched on hypnotic susceptibility and internal-external locus of control, were randomly assigned to the self- or hetero-hypnotic treatments. Self reports of their hypnotic behavioral scores and hypnotic subjective responses were obtained for each subject. "The statistical analyses showed there were no significant differences between the internal and external locus of control groups or within groups in regard to self- and hetero-hypnosis total behavioral scores, "challenge" or "non-challenge" items, .... their reported subjective experiences. The results supported the similarity of hetero- and self- hypnosis. Various findings from past research in regard to I-E subjects were also challenged in terms of their generalizability to hypnotic settings" (pp. 978-979).
1970
Fromm, Erika; Oberlander, Mark I.; Gruenewald, Doris (1970). Perceptual and cognitive processes in different states of consciousness: The waking state and hypnosis. Journal of Projective Techniques and Personality Assessment, 34, 375-387.
Hypnosis was assumed to influence perceptual and cognitive functioning in the direction of increased primary process ideation and adaptive regression. The Rorschach test was administered to 32 Ss in the waking state and under hypnosis in counterbalanced order. Hypnosis was induced by a standardized procedure. Ss received identical instructions for the Rorschach in both conditions. Protocols were scored according to Holt's system for manifestations and control of primary process. Hypnotic Rorschachs showed an increase in primary process manifestations, but no changes in defensive and coping functioning, and no overall changes in the Adaptive Regression Score. However, the nature of the data was found to be influenced by Ss' sex and level of adjustment.
1968
Chambers, Helen (1968). Oral eroticism revealed by hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 16, 151-157.
A CASE STUDY OF THE OUTPATIENT TREATMENT OF A SEVERELY DEPRESSED WOMAN. THE CASE WAS COMPLICATED BY THE S''S REFUSING USUAL ANTIDEPRESSANT TREATMENTS. COMMUNICATION WAS DIFFICULT BUT WAS FINALLY ACHIEVED BY THE USE OF ETHER AT
ACHIEVED BY THE USE OF ETHER AT ALTERNATE INTERVIEWS. WITHDRAWAL OF ETHER WAS THEN USED TO CREATE A SITUATION OF DEPRIVATION TO AROUSE IN THE TRANSFERENCE ATTITUDE THE FEELINGS PRODUCED BY THE EARLY TRAUMA. THE S''S COMPULSION TO EAT RAW POTATOES WAS STUDIED WHILE SHE WAS DEEPLY HYPNOTIZED. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES THAT PLACE THE ORIGIN OF DEPRESSION AT THE TIME WHEN THE ORAL PHASE IS PRIMARY WERE CONFIRMED. THE S REFUSED ANY OTHER ANTIDEPRESSANT TREATMENT. (GERMAN + SPANISH SUMMARIES) (PsycINFO Database
Faw, Volney; Sellers, David J.; Wilcox, Warren W. (1968). Psychopathological effects of hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 16, 26-37.
The probability that hypnotic induction produces psychopathological effects has not been experimentally determined. The present study hypothesizes various negative effects following hypnosis such as increased signs of personality disturbances, increased need for medical attention, greater tendencies toward suicide, and negative effects among the more maladjusted persons of the population sample. 107 college students were assigned at random to experimental and control groups. The experimental group was hypnotized 3 times in successive weeks. A comparison between control and experimental groups in respect to pre- and post-MMPI score differences plus a follow-up with the college counseling center and infirmary for a 90-day period following induction led to the rejection of the hypotheses. A comparison of measures yielded some significant differences in favor of the experimental group. It is concluded that there are nondetrimental effects when hypnosis is used with a normal college population.
1965
Cooper, Leslie M.; Pedersen, Darhl M. (1965). A note on the failure to find personality differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers for hypnotic research. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13 (4), 274-278.
Personality measures were administered to 136 students in an introductory psychology class at Brigham Young University. 30 Ss subsequently volunteered to have their hypnotic susceptibility assessed. There were no significant differences found between the means of the resulting 23 variables for the 30 volunteers and 106 nonvolunteers. 2 variables (age and ego strength) showed significantly different variances for the 2 groups, but these may be attributed to chance because of the number of significance tests made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1964
Cooper, G. W.; Dana, R. H. (1964). Hypnotizability and the Maudsley Personality Inventory. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 12, 28-33.
The Maudsley Personality Inventory was administered to 349 male college students. 9 male Ss were chosen to represent each of the 4 possible combinations (total N = 36) of extreme high and low extraversion and introversion scores. An attempt was made to hypnotize each S by means of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C. Analysis of variance indicated no significant relationship between either extraversion or neuroticism and hypnotizability, although the relationship between extraversion and hypnotizability approached significance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
the relationship between extraversion and hypnotizability approached significance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1963
Deckert, G. H.; West, L. J. (1963). The problem of hypnotizability: A review. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11, 205-235.
This paper summarizes the relatively unsuccessful effort to relate hypnotizability to sex, age, psychiatric diagnoses, suggestibility, and various personality traits. The problems of measurement, subject selection, controls, and experimenter bias are reviewed. Comparison of data is difficult and replication of studies infrequent. This might be attributed to incomplete reporting of methodology, defects in experimental design, and various conceptual problems. Concepts which view hypnotizability as "something" universal, "something" unique, or "nothing" are briefly appraised. Finally, hypnotizability is seen as a "term" describing a relationship between a "route" and a "state"--each identifiable by measurable criteria. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Evans, Frederick J. (1963). The Maudsley Personality Inventory, suggestibility and hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11, 187-200.
An attempt to replicate the claim of Furneaux and Gibson (1961) that stable extraverts and neurotic introverts were more susceptible to hypnotic suggestion than neurotic extraverts and stable introverts, using the MPI dimensions, was unsuccessful. Some "trends" are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Furneaux, W. D. (1963). Neuroticism, Extraversion, answer suggestibility: A comment. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11, 201-202.
Author develops hypotheses about the relationships between scores on the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) and suggestibility.
"(a) The effective-drive experienced by a S in a suggestibility test, or hypnosis situation, is positively correlated with both neuroticism and with extraversion, as measured by the MPI.
(b) Effective-drive is also a function of the ''press'' of the test situation, and of the S''s previous experience.
(c) Within the range of values of effective-drive lower than the Yerkes-Dodson optimum for the test being studied, the magnitude of response to a suggestibility test (or hypnosis) is a positive function of drive.
(d) For values of effective-drive greater than the Yerkes-Dodson optimum, response is a negative function of drive" (p. 201).
Levitt, Eugene E.; Lubin, B. (1963). TAT card '12MF' and hypnosis themes in females. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 11, 241-244.
Modification of TAT Card 12M, so that the supine figure was a female, did not increase the frequency of hypnosis themes among sophomore student nurses. The hypothesis that difficulty in identifying with a male figure accounted for the card''s inability to predict attitudes towards hypnosis in females was, therefore, not supported. The modified card did elicit significantly more identifications of the standing figure as a professional person. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Levitt, Eugene E.; Brady, J. P.; Lubin, B. (1963). Correlates of hypnotizability in young women: Anxiety and dependency. Journal of Personality, 31, 52-57.
"2 measures of anxiety and 1 of dependency distinguished between groups of hypnotizable and refractory student nurses, according to the hypothesis that low anxiety and high dependency are associated with hypnotizability . . . . Sign analyses of all 6 possible combinations of anxiety and dependency variables were carried out. For all combinations, the frequency of Ss whose reactions to hypnosis were predictable according to the hypothesis significantly exceeded chance expectation." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1962
As, Arvid; Lauer, Lillian W. (1962). A factor analytic study of hypnotizability and related personal experiences. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 10 (3), 169-181.
To throw further light on the exclusivity of "primary suggestibility" as reported by other investigators, a factor analysis was performed in a sample of 102 female college students on the basis of the intercorrelations of 23 items of personal experiences earlier shown to be related to hypnotizability, and 19 items from 2 hypnosis scales. No simple factor structure emerged. 2 factors were interpreted: the 1st as a hypnotic factor with special emphasis on the capability to sustain the effect of suggestion over time, and the 2nd as a combination of psychological changeableness and social influencibility. A brief discussion was given of the composite picture of hypnotic susceptibilty emerging from the fact that many hypnotic items loaded on both factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Gibson, H. B. (1962). Furneaux's discussion of extroversion and neuroticism with regard to suggestibility. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 10, 281-287. (Abstracted in Index Medicus, 63, March, S-676)
Hypotheses suggested by Furneaux (see 36: 4II95F) are criticized on the grounds that his basic assumption that extraverts attend more closely in the interpersonal situation is unwarranted. It is maintained on the contrary that introverts are the less distractible and it is shown that the data published earlier by Furneaux and Gibson (see 36: 3II67F) accord with a theoretical model derived from Spence. The results are also discussed in terms of an alternative interpretation. It is further contended that Furneaux''s treatment of the data leads to other inconsistencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Kuhner, Arthur (1962). Hypnosis without hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 10 (2), 93-99.
The traditional concept of hypnosis that seeks a "sleep" state through employment of formal induction techniques seriously limits its general clinical applicability. It fails to fit the special needs of the patient. An approach designed to counteract this shortcoming manipulates the interpersonal relationship factor. Case illustrations from dental practice support the viewpoint that the proper relationship is akin to the hypnotic one and comparable results obtain without resort to ritualistic induction methods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Levitt, Eugene E.; Lubin, Bernard; Brady, J. P. (1962). On the use of TAT Card 12M as an indicator of attitude toward hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 10 (3), 145-150. (Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts, 63: 5233)
This investigation indicates that responses to TAT Card 12M do not predict attitude toward hypnosis in female Ss, though such predictiveness has been reported for male respondents. The basis for this differential predictiveness may be that the latter give a significantly greater proportion of themes involving hypnosis. An explanatory hypothesis, based on perceptual theory and the stimulus properties of the card, is advanced. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
London, Perry; Cooper, Leslie M.; Johnson, Harold J. (1962). Subject characteristics in hypnosis research. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 13-21.
Items of experiences, interests, and attitudes, in London''s Survey, tended to cluster among themselves, suggesting a separate factor for each. The items were compared to several objective tests, but correlations were low. The Survey and Shor''s Personal Experiences Questionnaire combined, correlated .64 with Stanford Scale A, suggesting the possible development of a paper-and-pencil predictor of hypnotic suggestability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
1961
Furneaux, W. D.; Gibson, H. B. (1961). The Maudsley Personality Inventory as a predictor of susceptibility to hypnosis. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 9, 167-177.
99 Ss were tested on the MPI, Body-Sway, and reaction to hypnotic induction. The Extraversion and Neuroticism scales when used in conjunction were efficient predictors of susceptibility, though the relationships were not simple linear and additive. The most susceptible Ss were the Stable Extraverts, while those scoring high on the Lie scale tended to be insusceptible to hypnosis. From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3II67F. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Furneaux, W. D. (1961). Neuroticism, extroversion, drive, and suggestibility. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 9, 195-214. (Abstracted in Psychological Abstracts, 62: 4 II 95F)
In the group studied, the body-sway scores of stable extraverts and neurotic introverts tended to be large, whereas they were smaller for stable introverts and neurotic extraverts. This result was explained in terms of a theoretical model in which the effective drive produced in a S by a test-situation is a function of both his neuroticism and his extraversion. The author believes that the theoretical model generates a number of predictions and suggestions which can serve to guide future experimental work in this field. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4II95F. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Hilgard, Josephine R.; Hilgard, Ernest R.; Newman, Martha (1961). Sequelae to hypnotic induction with special reference to earlier chemical anesthesia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 133, 461-478.
Although a review of relevant literature turned up little in the way of statistical studies, some case studies were located in which unintended or unexpected results of hypnosis were observed. The authors located 15 cases in which the symptoms that developed subsequent to symptom removal using hypnosis were more disturbing than the original symptom. This type of response occurred in patients with extensive psychiatric history, prior to the hypnosis experience. However, it could not be determined whether the undesired response was due to hypnosis or to the psychotherapy that was provided to these patients.
In order to avoid the complications introduced by studying undesired sequelae in psychiatric patients receiving posthypnotic suggestions for therapeutic purposes, this investigation used a sample of non-patient university students (114 male and 106 female) who volunteered for research. Subjects were asked about "aftereffects" in followup interviews. Aftereffects that might be considered sequelae are exemplified by statements such as, "I was 'in a fog' for one hour" and "Things were hazy and vague for four hours."